Deck 9: Thinking and Intelligence

Question 1

Distinguish between formal and informal reasoning.

Answer 1

A good answer will include the following key points.
- In formal reasoning, there is a clear solution available, and the information needed for drawing a conclusion or reaching a solution is specified clearly.
- In informal reasoning, there is often no clear solution.
- Informal reasoning involves dialectical thinking.

Question 2

At the age of 66, Hilda is worried when researchers ask her to take an IQ test. She knows that older people are assumed to have failing cognitive abilities. Which term is used to describe Hilda's anxiety? How could Hilda's test performance be affected by her worries?

Answer 2

A good answer will include the following key points.
- This is an example of stereotype threat.
- Because of increased anxiety, Hilda might not perform as well as she might have if she was not experiencing stereotype threat.

Question 3

Contrast the behaviours of college students who are weak in metacognition with those for whom metacognition is a strength.

Answer 3

A good answer will include the following key points.
- Metacognition is the knowledge or awareness of one's own cognitive processes and the ability to monitor and control those processes.
- Common behaviours of students who are weak in metacognition include:
-they may not notice when a passage in a textbook is difficult,
-they do not always realize that they don't understand what they have read, and
-they may spend too much time on material they already know and too little time on difficult material.
- Common behaviours of students who are strong in metacognition include:
-they check their comprehension by restating what they have read,
-they backtrack when necessary, and
-they question what they are reading.

Question 4

Research on animals and language indicates that:

A) dolphins are able to express an infinite number of novel utterances through whistles and other sounds.
B) bonobos seem to be able to produce original sentences through a variety of grunts and screeches.
C) humans are the only species that evolved with the natural ability to express and comprehend an infinite number of novel utterances.
D) nonhuman animals don't have their own languages, but clearly demonstrate human-like abilities when taught to communicate.

Question 5

Who among the following people is most likely to experience cognitive dissonance?

A) the draftee who hates the army
B) the smoker who knows that smoking causes lung cancer
C) the teenager who doesn't like the car a parent bought for him
D) the lawyer who worked hard to complete law school and likes working as a lawyer

Question 6

Connie's method of studying worked effectively throughout high school until she took her first foreign language course. In this course, her grades were much lower than usual. How could her mental set for studying have played a role in Connie scoring low grades?

Question 7

Explain some of the hazards of multitasking.

Question 8

How does the availability heuristic lead people to believe that catastrophic events, such as plane crashes, occur more frequently than they actually do?

Question 9

In the early 1900s, at the request of the French Ministry of Education, Alfred Binet constructed a testing instrument that eventually became the first widely used intelligence test. For what purpose was the test developed?

Question 10

Rita's mental representation for Halloween includes knowledge, beliefs, and expectations. Which term is used to describe these characteristics? Develop an example that describes Rita's mental representation for Halloween, making sure that each of the three aspects mentioned above is included.

Question 11

A ________ is an integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.

A) proposition
B) cognitive heuristic
C) cognitive schema
D) prototype

Question 12

Japanese school teachers and students are more likely than their American counterparts to believe that:

A) the secret to doing well in mathematics is working hard.
B) mathematical ability is innate and either you have it or you don't.
C) lower standards are acceptable because children need time for exercise and play.
D) small classes and high-technology resources are imperative for a quality education.

Question 13

In general, people try to avoid losses when making a decision. Explain why this cognitive bias may affect a person's decision about accepting or rejecting various aspects of medical treatment.

Question 14

A(n) ________ process occurs outside of conscious awareness, but is accessible to consciousness when necessary.

A) unconscious
B) subconscious
C) nonconscious
D) preconscious

Question 15

___________ intelligence refers to the practical application of intelligence.

A) Creative
B) Componential
C) Contextual
D) Experiential

Question 16

Which of the following statements is true of formal reasoning?

A) In formal reasoning, the information needed for drawing a conclusion or reaching a solution is specified clearly.
B) In formal reasoning, many approaches, viewpoints, or possible solutions may compete, and you may have to decide which one is most "reasonable."
C) Formal reasoning involves dialectical reasoning.
D) Formal reasoning uses heuristics, or rules of thumb, to try to reach a solution.

Question 17

________ thinkers generally assume that a correct answer always exists and can be obtained through the senses or from authorities.

A) Prereflective
B) Quasi-reflective
C) Semi-reflective
D) Reflective

Question 18

_______ is the tendency to solve new problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems.

A) Confirmation bias
B) A mental set
C) Hindsight bias
D) The framing effect

Question 19

The text discusses four elements of cognition: concepts, mental images, cognitive schemas, and propositions. In the diagram below, fill in the appropriate labels to create a visual summary of the elements of cognition.

Question 20

How does the cognitive approach to intelligence research differ from the psychometric approach? How do the two approaches define intelligence?

Question 21

________ is the tendency to falsely attribute human qualities to nonhuman beings.

A) Anthropomorphism
B) Anthropodenial
C) Convergent thinking
D) Divergent thinking

Question 22

Without _________, it is difficult to acquire tacit knowledge.

A) componential intelligence
B) contextual intelligence
C) experiential intelligence
D) metacognitive intelligence

Question 23

Which of the following statements defines basic concepts?

A) They are concepts that have a moderate number of instances and that are easier to acquire than those having few or many instances.
B) They are especially representative examples of another concept.
C) They are integrated mental networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.
D) They are made up of other concepts and express a single idea.

Question 24

An especially representative example of a concept is called a(n):

A) mental set.
B) basic concept.
C) algorithm.
D) prototype.

Question 25

Which of the following is one of the components in Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence?

A) metacognitive intelligence
B) cultural intelligence
C) contextual intelligence
D) emotional intelligence

Question 26

People who are ________ thinkers generally understand that some things can never be known with certainty, but they also understand that some judgments are more valid than others.

A) prereflective
B) quasi-reflective
C) semi-reflective
D) reflective

Question 27

________ is the study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals, especially in natural environments.

A) Psychometrics
B) Cognitive ethology
C) Factor analysis
D) Metacognition

Question 28

________ is the knowledge or awareness of one's own cognitive processes.

A) Contextual intelligence
B) Emotional intelligence
C) Metacognition
D) Tacit knowledge

Question 29

Based on the powers of thought and intelligence, human beings are called homo sapiens, which translates as:

A) rational man.
B) creative man.
C) anthropomorphic man.
D) anthropocentric man.

Question 30

A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea is called a:

A) prototype.
B) mental image.
C) cognitive schema.
D) proposition.

Question 31

Which of the following is most likely to be a prototype of the concept "fruit" for someone who grew up in the American Midwest?

A) pineapple
B) apple
C) star fruit
D) kiwi

Question 32

________ intelligence is the ability to identify your own and other people's emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others.

A) Componential
B) Emotional
C) Contextual
D) Experiential

Question 33

The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that supports one's own belief is called:

A) a mental set.
B) confirmation bias.
C) stereotype threat.
D) mindlessness.

Question 34

A mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties is called a(n):

A) mental set.
B) concept.
C) algorithm.
D) prototype.

Question 35

Informal reasoning involves:

A) using algorithms.
B) finding a single correct answer.
C) nonconscious responding.
D) dialectical reasoning.

Question 36

Catherine's grandmother says that if Catherine follows the family's traditional recipe for Irish soda bread exactly, then she is sure to have very good results. Catherine's grandmother is encouraging her granddaughter to:

A) engage in dialectical thinking.
B) make use of her family's tacit knowledge.
C) use an algorithm.
D) rely upon a heuristic.

Question 37

Which of the following statements is consistent with Benjamin Whorf's proposal about language?

A) Language does not influence our cognition and perception.
B) Grammatical aspects affect the way we think about the world.
C) Vocabulary and grammar do not affect the way we perceive things.
D) Language does not influence our perception of the world.

Question 38

On a trip to Australia, Caleb sees an ibis for the first time. Despite never having seen one before, he uses his ______________ for bird to quickly identify the ibis as a type of bird.

A) mental set
B) concept
C) algorithm
D) proposition

Question 39

Frida is a young child in the process of developing concepts. Which of the following concepts is she most likely to learn first?

A) vehicle
B) Honda
C) Ford
D) car

Question 40

Most people take longer to identify a platypus as a mammal than to identify a cat as a mammal. This is likely because a cat is closer to most people's _______________ for the concept of mammal.

A) mental set
B) prototype
C) basic concept
D) algorithm

Question 41

________ learning is defined as learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so and without being able to state exactly what it is you have learned.

A) Convergent
B) Implicit
C) Explicit
D) Divergent

Question 42

Fenton has learned a great strategy for winning a card game, but he developed the strategy without being able to consciously identify what he was doing. He isn't even sure what exactly he has learned! This type of learning is called:

A) implicit learning.
B) prototypical learning.
C) mindless learning.
D) algorithmic learning.

Question 43

As she moves quietly around the restaurant where she is a waitress, Alicia finds herself hearing "in her mind's ear" the song, "Just Whistle While You Work!" This would be an example of a(n):

A) proposition.
B) prototype.
C) auditory image.
D) cognitive schema.

Question 44

Diana and Erin are not able to figure out how they can fit two cupboards, a futon, a computer, and a refrigerator into their small dorm room. Just when it seems hopeless, Erin says, "Aha, I've got it!" and begins moving the items around. Erin's sudden revelation is most likely due to:

A) simplifying the process by imagining a prototype of a college dorm room and then making a decision based on the prototype.
B) clues that triggered nonconscious processing about the room arrangement followed by conscious awareness of the solution.
C) subconscious processing and automatic routines that she has learned so that she can perform them without thinking.
D) the ability to multitask in an efficient manner.

Question 45

Mayim is making her famous chili. Instead of measuring the amount of chopped peppers to add, she knows that a handful is "usually about right." This illustrates the use of a(n):

A) heuristic.
B) prototype.
C) algorithm.
D) mental image.

Question 46

________ refers to mental inflexibility, inertia, and obliviousness to the present context.

A) Implicit learning
B) Multitasking
C) Automatic processing
D) Mindlessness

Question 47

A ________ is an integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.

A) proposition
B) cognitive heuristic
C) cognitive schema
D) prototype

Question 48

The process of drawing conclusions or inferences from facts, observations, or assumptions is called:

A) reasoning.
B) framing.
C) reflective judgment.
D) prereflective thinking.

Question 49

A mental image is:

A) a mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents.
B) a mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties.
C) a unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea.
D) an integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.

Question 50

Our ability to multitask is due, in large part, to our ability to perform ________________ cognitive tasks.

A) conscious
B) deliberate
C) subconscious
D) nonconscious

Question 51

Which of the following is a characteristic of formal reasoning?

A) The information needed to solve the problem may be unclear or missing.
B) There is typically one correct answer.
C) You often need to decide which of the many possible solutions is the most "reasonable."
D) It is a type of nonconscious responding.

Question 52

A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea is called a:

A) prototype.
B) mental image.
C) cognitive schema.
D) proposition.

Question 53

A representation that may occur in many sensory modalities, and that resembles what it represents, is a:

A) concept.
B) mental image.
C) cognitive schema.
D) proposition.

Question 54

A(n) ________ process occurs outside of conscious awareness, but is accessible to consciousness when necessary.

A) unconscious
B) subconscious
C) nonconscious
D) preconscious

Question 55

Harriet purchases a cupboard for her kitchen. She assembles the cupboard by following a series of steps illustrated in the instruction manual. Which type of problem-solving strategy has Harriet adopted?

A) algorithmic
B) heuristic
C) multitasking
D) intuitive

Question 56

Peter's mental representation of Thanksgiving includes associations about turkeys, attitudes toward the holiday, and expectations about the weight he would gain. These are all part of his ________ for the holiday.

A) cognitive schema
B) heuristic
C) hindsight bias
D) algorithm

Question 57

When Mitch was learning to drive, he couldn't imagine how he could ever remember to steer the wheel, flip on the turn signal, step on the accelerator, and still manage to turn the car! After driving for three years, Mitch's reactions have become automatic. Now, when he drives a car:

A) nonconscious processes are involved.
B) convergent thinking is involved.
C) subconscious processes are involved.
D) divergent thinking is involved.

Question 58

Jerome Kagan likens consciousness to the staff of a fire department because:

A) most of the time it is making critical decisions about the events of the day.
B) it is almost always "on the road" looking for relevant information to be used to decipher unexpected situations.
C) most of the time it is quietly playing cards in the back room and it is called into action only when the alarm sounds.
D) it is almost always alert and attentive, ready to respond to any type of emergency.

Question 59

Catherine's grandmother says that if Catherine follows the family's traditional recipe for Irish soda bread exactly, then she is sure to have very good results. Catherine's grandmother is encouraging her granddaughter to:

A) engage in dialectical thinking.
B) make use of her family's tacit knowledge.
C) use an algorithm.
D) rely upon a heuristic.

Question 60

Which statement is true about the mindless processing of information?

A) We would be better off if we eliminated mindlessness completely from our lives.
B) It is usually the best way to perform a task because it allows us to operate on "automatic pilot."
C) It has little effect on behaviour because the processing goes on outside of awareness.
D) It has benefits, but also can lead to mishaps and serious errors.

Question 61

Gertrude voted "yes" on a ballot question about whether convicted sex offenders should be banned from being within 500 feet of a playground. Afterwards, she realized that she voted yes because she was disgusted by the thought of sex offenders near playgrounds, but did not really consider whether the ban would actually decrease the probability that a child would be harmed. Gertrude used ________________ to make her decision.

A) the affect heuristic
B) objective analysis
C) confirmation bias
D) the availability heuristic

Question 62

When John worries about getting bit by a shark when swimming at the beach, but doesn't worry about getting cancer from the cigarettes he smokes, he is:

A) avoiding loss.
B) exhibiting confirmation bias.
C) exaggerating the improbable.
D) exhibiting hindsight bias.

Question 63

The ________ is the tendency for people's choices to be affected by how a choice is presented, such as whether it is worded in terms of potential losses or gains.

A) availability heuristic
B) affect heuristic
C) hindsight bias
D) framing effect

Question 64

Which of the following statements is generally true for people capable of reflective judgment?

A) They are willing to consider evidence from a variety of sources and to reason dialectically.
B) They tend to assume that a correct answer always exists and that it can be obtained directly through the senses or from authorities.
C) They think that all opinions are created equal.
D) They do not distinguish between knowledge and belief or between belief and evidence, and they see no reason to justify a belief.

Question 65

When using the availability heuristic, people tend to judge the probability of an event based on:

A) the need to be right, which makes it hard to listen to the available information with an open mind.
B) statistical consideration of the frequency with which the event occurs in everyday life.
C) the burden of doubt people feel about their abilities to determine probability from available information.
D) how easy it is to think of examples or instances.

Question 66

Which of the following statements is true of formal reasoning?

A) In formal reasoning, the information needed for drawing a conclusion or reaching a solution is specified clearly.
B) In formal reasoning, many approaches, viewpoints, or possible solutions may compete, and you may have to decide which one is most "reasonable."
C) Formal reasoning involves dialectical reasoning.
D) Formal reasoning uses heuristics, or rules of thumb, to try to reach a solution.

Question 67

Dialectical reasoning involves:

A) comparing and evaluating opposing points of view in order to determine the best solution.
B) drawing conclusions from a set of observations or premises.
C) generalizing from past experience.
D) using an algorithm to solve a problem.

Question 68

When Manmeet's father passed away, the will stated that Manmeet and his brother should decide how to split the estate between them. After weeks of fighting over how to divide the inheritance, Manmeet tells his brother, "I would rather both of us get nothing, than for you to get more than is right!" This somewhat irrational position is likely the result of:

A) fairness bias.
B) hindsight bias.
C) cognitive dissonance.
D) avoiding loss.

Question 69

People who are ________ thinkers generally understand that some things can never be known with certainty, but they also understand that some judgments are more valid than others.

A) prereflective
B) quasi-reflective
C) semi-reflective
D) reflective

Question 70

Prereflective thinkers tend to assume that:

A) some things can never be known with certainty.
B) all opinions are created equal.
C) a correct answer always exists.
D) some judgments are more valid than others.

Question 71

Informal reasoning involves:

A) using algorithms.
B) finding a single correct answer.
C) nonconscious responding.
D) dialectical reasoning.

Question 72

Which of the following best describes the hindsight bias?

A) the tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own belief
B) the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known
C) the tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems
D) the tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something that they have worked hard or suffered to attain

Question 73

Most individuals do not show evidence of reflective judgment until their ________, if at all.

A) teen years
B) middle to late twenties
C) early to middle thirties
D) late thirties to early forties

Question 74

The ________ involves consulting one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively.

A) availability heuristic
B) affect heuristic
C) framing effect
D) hindsight bias

Question 75

________ thinkers generally assume that a correct answer always exists to problems and can be obtained through the senses or from authorities.

A) Prereflective
B) Quasi-reflective
C) Semi-reflective
D) Reflective

Question 76

If individuals are asked to rate the effectiveness of condoms in preventing the transmission of HIV (the virus that causes AIDS), they would be most likely to rate a condom as effective if they were told:

A) that the condom has a 95 percent success rate in protecting against the HIV.
B) that only 5 condom users out of every 100 are not protected against the HIV.
C) that the condom has a 5 percent failure rate in protecting against the HIV.
D) It does not matter, because all of the options above describe the same statistical effectiveness.

Question 77

_____________ is usually the best approach to problems that have several possible answers that vary in quality.

A) Formal reasoning
B) Informal reasoning
C) Using an algorithm
D) Choosing a solution randomly

Question 78

A quasi-reflective thinker would be most likely to say that:

A) because knowledge is uncertain, any judgment about the evidence is purely subjective.
B) a correct answer exists for every problem.
C) some judgments are more valid than others due to their logical consistency.
D) decisions should be based solely upon what you can see with your own two eyes.

Question 79

The process in which opposing facts are weighed and compared to determine the best solution is called:

A) contextual intelligence.
B) factor analysis.
C) dialectical reasoning.
D) justification of effort.

Question 80

DeAndre and eleven others jurors are chosen for a major court case. As foreperson, it will be DeAndre's responsibility to make sure that when the jury begins deliberating, they consider arguments for and against the defendant's guilt. This method of deliberation is an example of:

A) contextual intelligence.
B) dialectical reasoning.
C) formal reasoning.
D) inductive reasoning.