Deck 6: Attitudes

Question 1

How are attitudes usually characterized?

A) They are either positive or negative.
B) They are initially positive,but increasingly negative as new information arises.
C) They vary in strength along both positive and negative dimensions.
D) They range on a single dimension from positive to negative.

Answer 1

They vary in strength along both positive and negative dimensions.

Question 2

Cacioppo and Petty (1981)recorded facial muscle activity of university students as they listened to a message with which they agreed or disagreed.What did the results of this study indicate?

A) The results indicated that listening to a disagreeable message increases activity in the cheek muscles.
B) The results indicated that listening to a disagreeable message increases activity in the chin muscles.
C) The results indicated that listening to an agreeable message increases activity in the cheek muscles.
D) The results indicated that listening to an agreeable message increases activity in the muscles in the forehead and brow area.

Answer 2

The results indicated that listening to an agreeable message increases activity in the cheek muscles.

Question 3

Antonio describes himself as being high in need for evaluation.Which of the following most likely applies to Antonio?

A) He is less likely than most others to view his experiences in judgmental terms.
B) He is opinionated about social issues.
C) He tends to be subjective in his evaluations of others.
D) He does not feel ambivalent about modern notions of morality.

Answer 3

He is opinionated about social issues.

Question 4

Why are attitudes useful?

A) because they allow us to judge whether something we encounter is good or bad
B) because they organize our knowledge about a certain topic
C) because they make it more likely that we will change our minds
D) because they allow us to predict how others will behave

Question 5

Sammy and Mark watched a ballgame together.Sammy favoured the home team,while Mark was an avid fan of the road team.The star player for Sammy's team made a great play and started to celebrate in a rather demonstrative fashion.Sammy got caught up in the celebration,while Mark was angered because he felt this display was an insult to the players of his team.What does this story demonstrate about attitudes?

A) that evaluations of the facts of the same event are likely to differ from person to person
B) that we interpret events and behaviour based upon pre-existing attitudes
C) that central route processing leads to stronger opinions than peripheral route processing
D) that we can hold both positive and negative evaluations about the same object

Question 6

What is a Likert scale?

A) It contains true-and-false questions.
B) It contains a list of statements with ratings from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
C) It contains a multiple-choice format of different responses.
D) It contains composed of yes-and-no-type questions.

Question 7

Anna has decided to use physiological arousal as a measure of attitudes.By relying on this particular measure,what will Anna be assessing?

A) the intensity of the attitude
B) the direction of the attitude
C) the accuracy of the attitude
D) the generality of the attitude

Question 8

Which of the following is a potential problem with self-report measures of attitudes?

A) They do not provide information concerning the intensity of an attitude.
B) They do not provide information concerning the direction of an attitude.
C) Respondents might not respond truthfully.
D) It is not possible to assess the validity of self-report measures.

Question 9

What are the advantages of using facial electromyography (EMG)to assess attitudes?

A) Facial EMG can detect muscular changes not observable to the naked eye.
B) Facial EMG is not influenced by the direction of attitudes.
C) Facial EMG produces one pattern of activity that can be interpreted as happiness or sadness.
D) Facial EMG is only an accurate measure of attitudes if people know their attitudes are being assessed,so it is susceptible to the same biases as self-reports.

Question 10

Jacqueline,an attitude researcher,is interested in how people feel about alcohol.Which of the following methods should she use in her research?

A) She should use a Likert scale because it is not as susceptible to social desirability effects as other methods.
B) She should use a bogus pipeline because it is not as susceptible to social desirability effects as other methods.
C) She should use a behavioural measure because it shows the attitude more clearly than other methods.
D) She should use a facial electromyograph because it shows the attitude more clearly than other methods.

Question 11

Which of the following methods is most likely to increase the accuracy of self-report measures of attitudes?

A) offering many,rather than fewer,response options
B) using a single attitude scale,rather than multiple scales
C) assessing attitudes toward multiple issues at once
D) convincing respondents that any deception would be detected

Question 12

Tsuyoshi has positive implicit attitudes about himself.We know this because on an Implicit Association Test,he was quickest to associate photos of himself with which of the following?

A) positive words
B) negative words
C) male faces
D) female faces

Question 13

What are physiological measures of attitudes such as heart rate and perspiration more likely to show?

A) Physiological measures are more likely to show social desirability bias.
B) Physiological measures are more likely to reveal the intensity of an attitude.
C) Physiological measures are more likely to reveal whether an attitude is positive or negative.
D) Physiological measures are more likely to show overt stereotypes.

Question 14

Which of the following terms refers to a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to obtain accurate self-reports of attitudes?

A) the bogus pipeline
B) facial electromyography
C) a Likert scale
D) the implicit association test

Question 15

Wells and Petty (1980)videotaped students as they listened to a speech.What did their results indicate?

A) Students revealed the intensity,but not the direction,of their attitudes through their body language.
B) Students' self-reported attitudes did not agree with their observed attitudes.
C) Students signalled their attitudes by nodding or shaking their heads.
D) Horizontal head movements indicate agreement,whereas vertical head movements indicate disagreement.

Question 16

People who are high in need for evaluation tend to have which of the following kinds of attitudes?

A) more negative attitudes
B) more informed attitudes
C) more strong attitudes
D) more positive attitudes

Question 17

Which of the following would be considered an attitude?

A) Darnell knows how to play chess.
B) Daphne hates liver.
C) Daisy voted for a local candidate in the last election.
D) Dalton drives a green minivan.

Question 18

Which of the following can be used as a covert measure of attitude?

A) the facial electromyograph
B) response delay
C) the Likert scale
D) multidimensional scaling

Question 19

Shaniqua plans to use a self-report measure in which people indicate their agreement or disagreement with a list of statements.Which of the following is she using?

A) a Likert scale
B) the luncheon technique
C) a categorical matrix
D) an agreement index

Question 20

In trying to assess attitudes about particular subjects,public opinion pollsters have become aware that attitude responses seem to be affected most by which of the following factors?

A) the text style in which the question appears
B) the reading speed required for the question
C) the specific response options given
D) the length of the questionnaire

Question 21

Which theory suggests that intentions to perform a behaviour are best predicted by attitudes toward the behaviour,subjective norms,and perceived behavioural control?

A) the theory of planned behaviour
B) the cognitive dissonance theory
C) the self-perception theory
D) the self-affirmation theory

Question 22

Ichiro is interested in finding out how many students plan to vote in an upcoming federal election.According to the theory of planned behaviour,which of the following questions would be the best predictor of whether a student would vote in the election?

A) What are your attitudes about Canadian politics?
B) What are your attitudes about voting in federal elections?
C) What are your attitudes about the last federal election?
D) What are your attitudes about your current Member of Parliament?

Question 23

What did LaPiere's (1934)study of attitudes demonstrate?

A) that self-reported attitudes are not always predictive of behaviour
B) that attitudes and behaviour are strongly related,regardless of how they are measured
C) that prejudiced attitudes in particular are likely to be highly predictive of behaviour
D) that behaviour towards members of stereotyped groups depends more on attitudes than feelings

Question 24

Which of the following factors distinguishes strong from weak attitudes?

A) the number of related attitudes
B) the generality of the attitude measures
C) the amount of perceived behavioural control
D) the extent to which the issue concerns important values

Question 25

In which of the following ways does an Implicit Association Tests commonly reveal biased attitudes?

A) by showing more errors and longer response times to connect the concepts of white and good
B) by showing fewer errors and longer response times to connect the concepts of white and good
C) by showing fewer errors and shorter response times to connect the concepts of black and good
D) by showing more errors and longer response times to connect the concepts of black and good

Question 26

In which of the following situations will attitude-behaviour correspondence be greatest?

A) when the person cannot see him- or herself
B) when social norms are well known
C) when the behaviour is not too highly specific
D) when the attitude is strongly held

Question 27

While watching a political debate on television,Matilda critically evaluated the arguments made by each candidate and was persuaded to support a particular candidate because of the quality of her arguments.What did Matilda exhibit in this situation?

A) psychological reactance
B) persuasion via the central route
C) persuasion via the peripheral route
D) insufficient justification

Question 28

According to the research findings presented in the textbook,which of the following attitudes are least affected by a genetic contribution?

A) attitudes toward exciting experiences
B) attitudes toward organized religion
C) attitudes toward playing sports
D) attitudes toward traditional sex roles

Question 29

Why might mirrors in shopping malls reduce shoplifting?

A) Shoppers are distracted by seeing their reflections,which makes them less likely to behave in accord with their positive attitudes toward shoplifting.
B) People focus on the image they see and their negative attitudes toward shoplifting are weakened.
C) Mirrors create a sense of anxiety that others might be able to see us shoplift.
D) Mirrors increase self-awareness,which makes negative attitudes toward shoplifting accessible.

Question 30

According to the theory of planned behaviour,why might a person's attitude be different from that person's behaviour?

A) because the behaviour is determined by norms that are consistent with the person's attitudes
B) because the behaviour is one that the person feels is within his or her control
C) because the behaviour is determined by norms that are counter to the person's attitudes
D) because the behaviour occurs only when the person is self-aware

Question 31

Gloria has a negative attitude toward smoking,but she continues to smoke two packs of cigarettes a day.According to the theory of planned behaviour,which of the following is the most likely reason that her attitude and behaviour are inconsistent?

A) Her attitude is based on feelings rather than beliefs.
B) She doesn't believe that she can control her smoking behaviour.
C) Her family and friends also have negative attitudes toward smoking.
D) Her attitudes are usually accessible when she reaches for a cigarette.

Question 32

What do we call the process by which a person critically evaluates a persuasive communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments?

A) persuasion via the primacy effect
B) persuasion via insufficient deterrence
C) persuasion via the sleeper effect
D) persuasion via the central route

Question 33

Kraus (1995)reviewed a multitude of studies on the consistency between attitudes and behaviour.Which of the following general conclusions did Kraus's review suggest?

A) that attitudes are not usually correlated with behaviour
B) that attitudes are correlated with current but not future behaviour
C) that attitudes are substantially correlated with future behaviour
D) that attitudes are correlated with feelings more than they are with behaviour

Question 34

Professor Abboud would like to reduce cheating in her classes.She knows that students strongly oppose cheating but,in spite of these negative attitudes,cheating is quite common.Which of the following tactics would be most effective at reducing cheating?

A) To strengthen attitudes against cheating,ask students to write and sign a statement indicating that they will not cheat prior to each exam.
B) To increase anxiety,make sure students are not well informed about what behaviours constitute cheating or what consequences might result from cheating.
C) To increase accessibility,show subliminal messages saying cheating is wrong for a few moments before each exam.
D) To increase self-awareness,place a mirror at the front of the class during exams.

Question 35

What do we call the process by which a person is persuaded by cues in the persuasion context rather than thinking critically about the content of a persuasive message?

A) persuasion via psychological reactance
B) persuasion via the primacy effect
C) persuasion via the peripheral route
D) persuasion via the central route

Question 36

What understanding of attitude-behaviour constancy is most strongly supported by social psychological research?

A) Attitude-behaviour consistency is greater in unfamiliar environments.
B) Attitude-behaviour consistency is greater when the cognition is explicit.
C) Attitude-behaviour consistency is greater when the attitude is based on direct experience.
D) Attitude-behaviour consistency is unrelated to knowledge about the attitude object.

Question 37

Which of the following findings supports the hypothesis that there is a genetic component to some attitudes?

A) The attitudes of identical twins are more similar than those of fraternal twins.
B) The attitudes of identical twins are as similar as those of fraternal twins.
C) The attitudes of twins reared together are more similar than those of twins reared apart.
D) The attitudes of fraternal twins are more similar than those of other non-twin siblings.

Question 38

Why are implicit attitudes difficult to measure?

A) because people are not aware of having them
B) because physiological measures are not effective in assessing them
C) because they can only be measured by direct techniques
D) because they are easily influenced by social desirability

Question 39

The theory of planned behaviour posits that behaviour is a function of attitudes,subjective norms,behavioural intentions,and which of the following?

A) the amount of time we have considered engaging in the behaviour
B) the correspondence between the attitude and the behaviour
C) the amount of control we perceive we have over our behaviour
D) the costs of engaging in the behaviour

Question 40

Jacob wants to learn how to water-ski.According to the theory of planned behaviour,which of the following would be the most influential on his behaviour?

A) He has a positive general attitude toward the water.
B) He has seen others learn how to water-ski.
C) Many of his friends are water-skiers and they are encouraging him to join them.
D) He recognizes the dangers associated with water-skiing.

Question 41

When message recipients use the central route to persuasion,to what extent is persuasive communication effective?

A) to the extent that message recipients respond favourably to the message
B) to the extent that message recipients focus on the weak arguments within the message
C) to the extent that the message itself arouses psychological reactance
D) to the extent that message recipients are high in intelligence and self-esteem

Question 42

Gino,a salesperson,wants to use techniques that will lead his potential customers to rely on peripheral route persuasion.Which of the following should he do?

A) speak carefully when presenting information about his product
B) get the customer to nod in the affirmative while he is presenting his sales pitch
C) present his sales pitch to customers who have enough time hear his full message
D) approach prospective buyers who obviously care deeply about his product

Question 43

Dan is listening to the dean of the university speak about banning fraternities on campus.In which of the following situations is Dan most likely to evaluate the quality of the dean's arguments?

A) if the dean speaks very quickly
B) if Dan is a member of a fraternity
C) if Dan is doing his calculus homework while listening to the speech
D) if the dean indicates that most students think fraternities should be banned

Question 44

Which of the following does the central route to persuasion require?

A) intelligence and strong arguments
B) involvement and an expert source
C) ability and motivation
D) knowledge of the issue and a credible source

Question 45

In which of the following situations would you be most likely to find the use of the central route to persuasion?

A) When a person relies on non-verbal cues to make their plea.
B) When a person has very restricted time to present their argument.
C) When a person is able to present a two-sided rather than a one-sided argument.
D) When a person has a large quantity of arguments rather than a few high-quality arguments.

Question 46

Which of the following pairs of characteristics matter more on the central route to persuasion than on the peripheral route?

A) whether the message is easily learned and whether it is memorable
B) whether the message is memorable and whether it is given by a speaker with an honest reputation
C) whether the message is given by a speaker with an honest reputation and whether the message stimulates favourable elaboration
D) whether the message stimulates favourable elaboration and whether the message elicits cheers from an audience

Question 47

Because communicator trustworthiness is important,people tend to be readily impressed by speakers who do which of the following?

A) take popular stands
B) argue against their own interests
C) talk slowly and deliberately
D) dress well

Question 48

What is the primary difference between the models of persuasion proposed by Hovland and McGuire and that proposed by Greenwald?

A) Greenwald's model does not allow for central route processing.
B) Greenwald's model emphasizes the role of elaboration in producing persuasion.
C) Greenwald's model does not include reception as one of the information-processing steps in persuasion.
D) Greenwald's model proposes that memory of message content is the most important determinant of persuasion.

Question 49

Which of the following factors is a determinant of the route to persuasion?

A) the clarity of the speaker
B) the attractiveness of the speaker
C) the complexity of the language
D) the type of scale used to assess persuasion

Question 50

When an audience member does not feel personally involved or invested in the topic of a persuasive message,which of the following is he or she most likely to do?

A) focus primarily on the strength of the message,ignoring the apparent expertise of the message source
B) be influenced immediately by the sleeper effect
C) engage in a central,but not peripheral,route to persuasion
D) focus on the attributes of the message source

Question 51

Ulysses is a speaker renowned for the trustworthiness he seems to possess.In an effort to impress people with his trustworthiness,which of the following is he most likely to do?

A) argue against his own interests
B) talk slowly and deliberately
C) dress well
D) take popular stands

Question 52

In which of the following situations is the peripheral route to persuasion is more likely to be chosen than the central route?

A) when the argument is a familiar one
B) when the message is personally significant
C) when the audience is attentive
D) when the audience is critical

Question 53

When message recipients use central route processing,which of the following will most likely happen?

A) Difficult messages will be more persuasive than easily learned messages.
B) Memorable messages will be more persuasive than forgettable ones.
C) Weak messages will engender more favourable responses than strong messages.
D) Elaboration of message content will be objective and unbiased.

Question 54

Mina,in putting together a persuasive speech for her speech class,compiled a long list of arguments favouring her position,as well as the names of several well-known experts who have expressed support for her thesis.What is Mina targeting with these tactics?

A) the elaborative route to persuasion
B) the peripheral route to persuasion
C) the central route to persuasion
D) the subjective route to persuasion

Question 55

Which of the following conditions is the first step in Hovland's model of persuasion as necessary for persuasion to occur?

A) Message recipients must elaborate the message.
B) Message recipients must attend to the message.
C) Message recipients must comprehend the message.
D) Message recipients must be motivated to accept the message.

Question 56

Kudirat is considered an expert in the field of theoretical physics.In order for her to be perceived as credible when speaking about her area of expertise,which of the following should she also be?

A) popular
B) attractive
C) trustworthy
D) direct

Question 57

Which of the following body movements is most likely to influence a person to show greater agreement with a persuasive message?

A) nodding one's head up and down
B) stretching the arms outward
C) shaking one's head side to side
D) flexing the arms inward

Question 58

Vicki is a lawyer who is trying to decide which of two experts she should hire to testify in her case.If Vicki wants the jurors to perceive her expert as trustworthy,which expert should she select?

A) the expert with the most recent experience in cases very similar to the current case
B) the expert who seems to argue against his or her self-interest
C) the expert who has the highest status in their field
D) the expert who has the most experience testifying in court

Question 59

Alex and Derek are trying to develop an advertising campaign in which a key element is the trustworthiness of the message's communicator.Which of the following strategies would they be most likely to use?

A) a public service message
B) overheard communications
C) novel advertising
D) political campaigns

Question 60

Oscar,an advertiser,develops a commercial for Crispy Crackling Cereal.Suppose children,processing information via the central route,watch the commercial.In which of the following cases will the commercial be least likely to persuade the kids to want the cereal?

A) if it uses a spokesperson who tells the kids about the cereal and asks whether they want to try it.
B) if it uses a simple,straightforward message that the kids can learn easily
C) if it uses a jingle about the great qualities of the cereal that the children will remember
D) if it uses an attractive spokesperson who appears to enjoy eating the cereal.

Question 61

For which of the following products will the physical attractiveness of a spokesmodel have the greatest effect?

A) life insurance
B) a hair-care product
C) running shoes
D) an insecticide

Question 62

What is the sleeper effect?

A) A sleeper effect is persuasion that occurs in response to subliminal stimuli
B) A sleeper effect is a response to a persuasive message from a noncredible source that becomes stronger over time
C) A sleeper effect is persuasion that is heightened by a distraction that decreases the ability to pay attention to a persuasive message
D) A sleeper effect is a persuasive effect that suddenly reverses.

Question 63

Vince and Allen give consecutive speeches on opposing sides in a debate on solar energy.Audience members are asked to register their views a few weeks later.How might the order of the speeches affect the audience's decision?

A) It should yield a primacy effect.
B) It should yield a subliminal effect.
C) It should yield a recency effect.
D) It should not have any effect.

Question 64

At a computer trade show,a representative from ABC Computers presents its product to the audience,and is immediately followed by a representative from XYZ Computers,who demonstrates the benefits of XYZ's product.If surveyed immediately after the show,what is the audience most likely to report?

A) that they were more persuaded by ABC Computers
B) that they were more persuaded by XYZ Computers
C) that they were equally persuaded by both companies if the presentations were comparable
D) that they were persuaded by neither company

Question 65

Which of the following source characteristics best explains why a company might recruit a supermodel to endorse its products?

A) similarity
B) credibility
C) likability
D) trustworthiness

Question 66

How can we be persuaded to change our position on personally important issues?

A) We are more often persuaded by the central route regarding these issues.
B) We are more often persuaded by the peripheral route regarding these issues.
C) We are more often persuaded when others take a position very discrepant from how we feel.
D) We are more often persuaded when we are in a bad mood.

Question 67

A university president wants to convince students that the university must double its tuition in five years.He is looking to hire a credible promoter to appeal to students.If he wanted to implement the change next year,should he adopt a different strategy?

A) No,he should do the same thing either way.
B) No,if the change will happen next year,the person he hires will matter more than the strength of the arguments.
C) Yes,if the change will happen next year,he should focus on the strength of the arguments more than the person he hires.
D) Yes,if the change will happen next year,obtaining a credible promoter and generating strong arguments will both be more crucial than if the change will happen in five years.

Question 68

Hope read a persuasive message written by a source whom she considered incompetent and untrustworthy.According to the sleeper effect,what effect will that message most likely have on her attitude over time?

A) Her attitude will change over time in the in the direction advocated by the speaker.
B) Her agreement with the attitudinal message will first increase,and then decrease over time.
C) Her agreement with the attitudinal message will change over time in the opposite direction than that advocated by the speaker.
D) Her agreement with the attitudinal message will decrease over time.

Question 69

As personal involvement regarding an issue increases,which of the following is most likely to happen?

A) The quality of the arguments becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
B) The credibility of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
C) The attractiveness of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
D) The likeability of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.

Question 70

Josue listened to a speech on the radio advocating the increased use of automobiles that are not reliant on fossil fuels.According to the research in the textbook,one would expect the sleeper effect to be greatest if Josue was asked about his views on the issue at which of the following times?

A) immediately
B) that same day
C) a few weeks later
D) a few months later

Question 71

When communicators similar to us are physically attractive,which of the following qualities will they be perceived as having?

A) credibility
B) competence
C) expertise
D) likability

Question 72

While shopping at the local mall,Ihno is approached by a man who asks her to sign a petition for stricter gun-control laws.If Ihno uses the central route to decide whether to sign the petition,under which of the following circumstances will she be most likely to sign?

A) if the man who approaches her is physically attractive
B) if the man who approaches her is a member of a gun club
C) if the man who approaches her is a police officer
D) if the man who approaches her presents strong arguments

Question 73

Cairan wants to persuade her friends that residence halls should have curfews.Assuming her friends consider this issue to be personally involving,what should Cairan do?

A) present only strong arguments that support her position
B) present her weak arguments first,followed by her strong arguments
C) present the strong arguments first and then follow with the weak arguments
D) present her friends with both sides of the argument

Question 74

Michael believes that one's family is more important than one's career.In order for him to successfully convince his achievement-oriented friend Ronald that he should also possess such a value system,what should Michael do?

A) take the very discrepant position that careers never provide satisfaction anywhere close to what a family provides
B) use peripheral cues
C) present as many arguments for his position as possible
D) suggest more of a balance between family and career concerns than is currently true for Ronald

Question 75

Louie runs a clinic that helps individuals to quit smoking,and he would like to use fear to motivate his clients.Which of the following strategies would be most effective?

A) First scare clients by showing them gory lung-cancer operations.Then outline the specific steps they could follow to stop smoking.
B) First scare clients by showing them gory lung-cancer operations.Then allow them to come up with their own ways of quitting smoking,so that they are more committed.
C) Present statistics concerning the health hazards of smoking,but nothing too scary.Then allow the clients to come up with their own ways of quitting smoking,so that they are more committed.
D) Present statistics concerning the health hazards of smoking,but nothing too scary.Then outline the specific steps they could follow to stop smoking.

Question 76

Professor Shackleford is elated because she has just learned that her paper has been accepted for publication.When a student passes her in the hallway and tells her that he missed the latest exam in order to stay home with his depressed cat,she accepts his story and gives the student a make-up exam.Which of the following is the most likely cause of Professor Shackleford's gullibility?

A) the attributions she has made
B) central route processing
C) her positive mood
D) self-persuasion

Question 77

Studies found that happy participants used the central route to persuasion when presented with a pro-attitudinal message,but the peripheral route to persuasion when presented with a counter-attitudinal message.Which of the following does this finding suggest?

A) Positive mood disrupts the ability to process persuasive information.
B) People in a happy mood rely on superficial processing strategies.
C) Positive mood affects different people in different ways.
D) People in a happy mood avoid processing only if it threatens to destroy their mood.

Question 78

If a company with a poor reputation wants to make successful use of the sleeper effect,it should make sure the audience only learns the company's identity at which of the following times?

A) after a commitment has been made
B) after inoculation has occurred
C) after a warning has been given
D) after the message has been received

Question 79

Sleeper effects can be reduced by reminding people that the source of a persuasive message was not credible.Which explanation of sleeper effects does this argument support?

A) the inoculation hypothesis
B) the discounting cue hypothesis
C) psychological reactance theory
D) cognitive dissonance theory

Question 80

How are fear appeals most effective?

A) Fear appeals may be most effective by decreasing the incentive to think carefully about the arguments in the message.
B) Fear appeals are most effective when they include shocking and alarming images.
C) Fear appeals are most effective when they include specific information on how to avoid the threat.
D) Fear appeals are most effective by increasing the ability of already fearful message recipients to carefully process a message.