Deck 5: Individual Differences: Know Yourself and Your Counterpart

Question 1

A party's predisposition to achieving a specific result or outcome from the negotiation is called a perspective frame.

Answer 1

False

Question 2

A frame is the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make sense out of situations, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions.

Answer 2

True

Question 3

Perception is a "sense-making" process; people interpret their environment so they can make appropriate responses to it.

Answer 3

True

Question 4

The perceiver's own needs, desires, motivations, and personal experiences are likely to avoid a predisposition about the other party in an upcoming negotiation.

Question 5

Positive and negative emotions tend to be classified under the single term "happiness".

Question 6

Halo effects can be positive or negative.

Question 7

Much of the research that has been done on emotion emphasizes negative states.

Question 8

One of the ways framing affects negotiations is by influencing how negotiators interpret available options.

Question 9

There are no benefits to anger.

Question 10

Perception is the process by which individuals "connect" to their environment.

Question 11

Frames emerge and converge as the parties refuse to talk about their preferences and priorities.

Question 12

This type of frame, often referred to as a gain/loss frame, affects human behaviour and choice largely through its effect on people's risk preferences.

Question 13

A perceptual bias is the "sense making" mechanism through which people interpret their environment so they can respond appropriately.

Question 14

A reference point is an arbitrary point used to evaluate an alternative as either a gain or a loss.

Question 15

Multiple agenda items have no effect on issue development.

Question 16

Projection occurs when people assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they do not possess, but wish that they could, themselves.

Question 17

Stereotyping and halo effects are examples of perceptual distortion by the anticipation of encountering certain attributes and qualities in another person.

Question 18

Frames shape what the parties define as the key issues and how they talk about them.

Question 19

Moods and emotions are essentially the same thing.

Question 20

Halo effects occur when people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.

Question 21

Blaming occurs as the parties try to determine who or what caused the problem.

Question 22

Those attempting to negotiate in China recognize the value the Chinese place in saving "face." Which of the following cultural elements should also be examined in approaching discussions with the Chinese?

A) Social linkage
B) Harmony
C) Roles
D) Reciprocal obligations
E) All of the answers are correct.

Question 23

Projection occurs when

A) attributes are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her membership in a particular social or demographic group.
B) people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.
C) the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief and filters out information that does not confirm that belief.
D) people assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves.
E) All of the answers are correct.

Question 24

The endowment effect

A) is making attributions to the person or the situation
B) is drawing conclusions from small sample sizes
C) is negotiators believing that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than actually true
D) is the tendency to overvalue something you own or believe you possess
E) means you think you're so powerful you never have to say you're sorry

Question 25

Perception is

A) the process by which individuals connect to their environment.
B) strongly influenced by the perceiver's current state of mind, role, and understanding or comprehension of earlier communications.
C) a factor that can affect how meanings are ascribed.
D) a complex physical and psychological process.
E) All of the answers are correct

Question 26

Halo effects occur when

A) attributes are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her membership in a particular social or demographic group.
B) people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.
C) the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief, and filters out information that does not confirm that belief.
D) people ascribe to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves.
E) All of the answers are correct.

Question 27

The definition of issues at stake in a negotiation may not change as the discussion evolves.

Question 28

Which of the following cognitive biases can lead negotiators to discount the worth or validity of the judgment of others?

A) Irrational escalation of commitment
B) Mythical fixed-pie beliefs
C) Anchoring and adjustment
D) Availability of information
E) Overconfidence

Question 29

Which of the following is not a cognitive bias?

A) the irrational escalation of commitment
B) the belief that the issues under negotiation are all "fixed pie"
C) the process of anchoring and adjustment in decision making
D) the winner's curse
E) All of the answers are correct.

Question 30

Reactive devaluation

A) leads negotiators to minimize the magnitude of a concession made by a disliked other.
B) leads to reduced willingness to respond with a concession of equal size.
C) may be minimized by maintaining a more objective view of the process.
D) can lead to motivation to seek even more once a concession has been made.
E) All of the answers are correct.

Question 31

Naming occurs when parties in a dispute label or identify a problem and characterize what it is about.

Question 32

In which type of frame would parties be more likely to engage primarily in distributive (win-lose or lose-lose) negotiations than in other types?

A) Identity
B) Loss-gain
C) Outcome
D) Process
E) Substantive

Question 33

The irrational escalation of commitment bias refers to

A) the standard against which subsequent adjustments are measured during negotiation.
B) the perspective or point of view that people use when they gather information and solve problems.
C) how easily information can be recalled and used to inform or evaluate a process of a decision.
D) a negotiator's commitment to a course of action, even when that commitment constitutes irrational behaviour on his/her part.
E) None of the answers are correct.

Question 34

Framing is about focusing, shaping, and organizing the world around us, but does not define persons, events, or processes.

Question 35

One of the most important aspects of framing as issue development is the process of reframing, or the manner in which the thrust, tone, and focus of a conversation change as the parties engage in it. Reframing is or occurs:

A) the way parties challenge each other, as they present their own case or refute the other's.
B) a dynamic process that may occur many times in a conversation.
C) when using metaphors, analogies, or specific cases to illustrate a point.
D) and may be used intentionally by one side or the other.
E) all of the answers are correct.

Question 36

The availability of information bias operates with which of the following statements?

A) when negotiators sometimes maintain commitment to a course of action even when that commitment constitutes irrational behaviour on their part.
B) when thorough preparation, along with the use of a devil's advocate or reality check, can help prevent errors.
C) when information that is presented in vivid, colourful, or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall, and thus also becomes central and critical in evaluating events and options.
D) when the tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true.
E) when the tendency will often lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as follows: People who expect to be treated in a distributive manner will (1) be more likely to perceive the other party's behaviour as distributive and (2) treat the other party in a more distributive manner.

Question 37

Which of the following lists the stages of the perceptual process in the correct order?

A) stimulus, translation, attention, recognition, behaviour
B) stimulus, behaviour, translation, attention, recognition
C) stimulus, attention, recognition, translation, behaviour
D) behaviour, stimulus, recognition, attention, translation
E) None of the answers are correct.

Question 38

An insight drawn from research of the frames negotiators use in disputes would suggest that parties discussing salary may be likely to use outcome frames and may be related to which of the following?

A) Negotiators can use more than one frame.
B) Mismatches in frames between parties are sources of conflict.
C) Particular types of frames may lead to particular types of agreements.
D) Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues.
E) Parties are likely to assume a particular frame because of various factors.

Question 39

Frames are shaped by conversations that the parties have with each other about the issues in the bargaining mix. Which of the following factors can affect how the conversation is shaped?

A) Negotiators tend to argue for stock issues, or concerns that are raised every time the parties negotiate.
B) Each party attempts to make the best possible case for his or her preferred position or perspective.
C) Frames may define major shifts and transitions in a complex overall negotiation.
D) Multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development.
E) All of the answers are correct

Question 40

Both parties can have frames.

Question 41

How does an outcome frame function in an environmental dispute?

Question 42

How are frames critical in negotiations?

Question 43

What can help prevent errors of anchoring and adjustment?

Question 44

How does projection occur?

Question 45

The distinction between mood and emotion is based on which of the following characteristics?

A) specificity
B) intensity
C) duration
D) all of the above
E) none of the answers are correct.

Question 46

The best way to manage perceptual and cognitive biases is:

A) to be aware that they exist.
B) to participate in group discussions.
C) to tell people about the bias.
D) to understand how biases happen
E) All of the answers are correct.

Question 47

In negotiation, when does the availability bias operate?

Question 48

Why do mismatches occur in frames between parties' sources of conflicts?

Question 49

Define perceptual distortion by generalization.

Question 50

Define risk-averse and risk-seeking framing.

Question 51

Explain "Irrational Escalation of Commitment."

Question 52

List the five concepts from Chinese culture, as identified by
C. Tinsley that those attempting to negotiate in China should recognize.
Social linkage, harmony, roles, reciprocal obligations, and face.

Question 53

What role do frames play in the way they are constructed so that bargainers define problems and courses of action jointly through their talk?

Question 54

What is the best remedy for the winner's curse?

Question 55

Negative emotions may lead parties to

A) more integrative processes
B) escalate the conflict
C) promote persistence
D) define the situation as integrative
E) more integrative outcomes

Question 56

How do multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development?

Question 57

A key issue in perception and negotiation is framing. What is framing?

Question 58

Describe the double-edged effect of overconfidence.

Question 59

What is stereotyping?

Question 60

Define cognitive biases.