Deck 6: Decision Making: Rationality,psychology,and Organizations

Question 1

In game theory,the ability to predict an outcome is known as

A) "solving" the game.
B) prospect theory.
C) satisficing.
D) instrumental rationality.

Answer 1

A

Question 2

The stage of the decision-making process that involves the actual selection of an alternative after evaluating the possibilities is known as the

A) predecisional stage.
B) screening stage.
C) formulation stage.
D) implementation stage.

Answer 2

C

Question 3

Graham Allison's governmental politics model suggests that decisions are the result of

A) following only government established standard operating procedures.
B) instrumental rational calculations by governmental leaders,like expected utility.
C) cognitive dissonance among high level government leaders.
D) various bargaining games among bureaucratic players within the government.

Answer 3

D

Question 4

In the conduct of American foreign policy,the single group that ultimately makes decisions on matters of war and peace is the

A) Department of State.
B) U.S.military.
C) Executive Committee.
D) National Security Council.

Question 5

The principal-agent model leads scholars to focus on

A) the ways in which the behavior of agents can be brought into line with objectives of principals.
B) different principal actors and the way in which they influence agents.
C) different agents and the way in which the impact principal actors.
D) the ways in which the behavior of principals can be brought into line with objectives of agents.

Question 6

Crisis decisions generally involve

A) many mid-level staff personnel and government bureaucrats.
B) military officials,as opposed to civilian politicians.
C) a few,very high-level decisionmakers.
D) all branches of government.

Question 7

The process in which actors clarify their goals,evaluate their options,and determine their preferences in order to provide a decision is known as

A) satisficing.
B) the rational actor model.
C) utility.
D) prospect theory.

Question 8

Instrumental rationality is

A) an ability to relate means to an end.
B) an ability to maximize utility.
C) an ability to use policies in a logical manner.
D) an ability to calculate benefits of actions.

Question 9

The heart of decision making and attempts to understand and explain it rests on

A) the government politics model.
B) expected utility theory.
C) groupthink.
D) the process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives.

Question 10

Game theory treats actors as players involved in a game consisting of

A) strategies and outcomes.
B) moves and countermoves.
C) crisis and capitulation.
D) alternatives and choices.

Question 11

Satisficing means that decisionmakers settle at the

A) best alternative that meets the highest set of requirements.
B) first alternative that meets the highest set of requirements.
C) best alternative that meets the minimal set of requirements.
D) first alternative that meets the minimal set of requirements.

Question 12

The process of expected utility takes into account

A) the utility of an outcome.
B) the probability of an outcome.
C) both A and B.
D) none of the above.

Question 13

In its simplest formulation,rationality is the ability to

A) relate means to ends.
B) decide what ends people should want.
C) make decisions based on perfect information.
D) make decisions based on imperfect information.

Question 14

The requirements of the rational decision-making model lead to a paradox because

A) information is never perfect.
B) too much information leads to overload.
C) decisionmakers have to decide what to decide.
D) All of the above are true.

Question 15

The "decision cube" defines crises based upon their position along the following three dimensions

A) low politics,medium politics,high politics.
B) threat,decision time,awareness.
C) allies,adversaries,nonalignment.
D) use of force,use of sanctions,"do nothing" option.

Question 16

General foreign policy decisions usually involve

A) a relatively few number of high level government officials.
B) a large number of medium-level officials interacting with one or two of the high-level government officials.
C) the general public.
D) members of the President's Cabinet.

Question 17

According to the governmental politics model,which individual had the greatest amount of influence on foreign policy under President Kennedy?

A) Secretary of State Dean Rusk
B) Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara
C) National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger
D) Vice President Dick Cheney

Question 18

The decision-making concept known as satisficing implies

A) perfect information.
B) maximization.
C) perfect rationality.
D) bounded rationality.

Question 19

According to the decision-making approach known as prospect theory,most people

A) seem to fear losses more than they covet gains.
B) seem to fear losses as much as they covet gains.
C) seem to covet gains more than they fear losses.
D) are risk averse and loss acceptant.

Question 20

The stage of the decision-making process that involves the collection of information and views and the scanning of the foreign policy horizon for possible problems and issues is known as the

A) predecisional stage.
B) screening stage.
C) formulation stage.
D) implementation stage.

Question 21

The death of top decisionmakers often brings

A) the decision-making process in government to a halt.
B) new opportunities for change.
C) urgency to the decision-making process.
D) little change.

Question 22

Psychoanalytical studies of Woodrow Wilson contend that his desire to acquire power and control over others and his unwillingness to compromise can be traced to

A) the crumbling of his boyhood world and the resulting inner chaos that motivated his search for external order.
B) his competition with and aggression toward his father.
C) his low self-esteem and self-confidence.
D) his preference for an energetic attack on obstacles in his path and the avoidance of emotional and intellectual ambiguities.

Question 23

Explain how "where you stand depends on where you sit" can influence foreign policy decisions.

Question 24

Cognitive consistency

A) enhances crisis decisionmaking.
B) is observed only in individuals and not in groups.
C) protects closely held images from being modified by contradictory new information.
D) explains the differences in foreign policy opinions of the elites compared to the masses.

Question 25

Information received about the behavior of another actor when it diverges from what has actually taken place is known as

A) misperception.
B) rationality.
C) cognitive consistency.
D) satisficing.

Question 26

An operational code is

A) the precise code specifying foreign policy processes.
B) part of a belief system that guides thinking.
C) similar to a standard operating procedure,but applies to foreign policies.
D) has little impact on actual decisions.

Question 27

Perception is most affected in foreign policy by

A) defense mechanisms.
B) historical analogies.
C) groupthink.
D) all of the above.

Question 28

Describe the rational actor model.Provide examples.

Question 29

The pressure on an individual to conform to small group's view is called

A) bounded rationality.
B) obedience to authority.
C) reality.
D) groupthink.

Question 30

Many suggest that Ronald Reagan allowed the Iran-Contra scandal to go unchecked because of

A) groupthink.
B) bounded rationality.
C) failing memory.
D) cognitive dissonance.

Question 31

Why do decision makers fear losses more than they covet gains? Explain.

Question 32

Psychobiographical analyses argue that Kissinger's quest for power can be traced to

A) the crumbling of his boyhood world and the resulting inner chaos that motivated his search for external order.
B) his competition with and aggression toward his father.
C) his low self-esteem and self-confidence.
D) his preference for an energetic attack on obstacles in his path and the avoidance of emotional and intellectual ambiguities.

Question 33

Medical histories of twentieth-century political and military leaders indicate

A) extremely high rates of physical disabilities.
B) extremely low rates of physical disabilities.
C) high levels of strokes.
D) high levels of heart attacks.

Question 34

If unchecked,groupthink can lead to

A) satisficing.
B) bounded rationality.
C) self-censorship.
D) independent critical thinking.

Question 35

How do crisis decisions differ from general foreign policy and administrative decisions? Explain and provide examples.

Question 36

Two characteristics of groupthink are

A) satisficing and bounded rationality.
B) opportunity and willingness.
C) illusion of invulnerability and belief in one's own morality.
D) illusion of invulnerability and independent critical thinking.

Question 37

Cognitive dissonance results from

A) personal emotions such as feelings of hostility or insecurity.
B) a low level of knowledge due to poor education.
C) the difficulty in processing information under conditions of uncertainty.
D) filtering of information inconsistent with existing images.

Question 38

Ronald Reagan's optimism and receptivity to advice can be traced to

A) the crumbling of his boyhood world and the resulting inner chaos that motivated his search for external order.
B) his competition with and aggression toward his father.
C) his low self-esteem and self-confidence.
D) his boyhood preference for an energetic attack on obstacles in his path and the avoidance of emotional and intellectual ambiguities.

Question 39

One benefit of small group interaction is

A) the ability to make decisions more rapidly.
B) the broadening of the range of alternatives available.
C) the narrowing of the set of perceived alternatives.
D) the ability to combine elite expertise.

Question 40

The belief system of an individual

A) orients the individual to the environment.
B) organizes perception as a guide to behavior.
C) acts as an information filter in any given situation.
D) All of the above are true.

Question 41

What is game theory and how can "solving" it help foreign policy decisions? Explain.

Question 42

What is the principal-agent problem? What are some solutions to the problem? Provide examples.