Deck 6: Generalization, Discrimination Learning, and Concept Formation Memory Module

Question 1

In a topographic representation:

A) each possible stimulus is represented by its own unique node.
B) stimuli are represented by overlapping pools of nodes.
C) neighboring cortical regions respond to similar stimuli.
D) weights are changed according to the Rescorla-Wagner rule.

Answer 1

C

Question 2

Larry is visiting his grandmother and cooking dinner for her. Since his grandmother has a different model of microwave oven than his, he has learned that he needs to push a different sequence of buttons on his grandmother's microwave oven when he wants to use it for cooking. This is an example of:

A) generalization.
B) discrimination.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) negative patterning.

Answer 2

B

Question 3

The hippocampal region seems to be important for:

A) learning a stimulus-response association.
B) determining what information is allowed to enter memory.
C) maintaining a topographic map of sensory stimuli.
D) encouraging cortical remapping to enhance the response to a stimulus.

Answer 3

B

Question 4

A detector for a unique configuration of two cues such as a certain tone and light is known as:

A) similarity-based generalization.
B) acquired equivalence.
C) negative patterning.
D) configural nodes.

Question 5

If one tells a person with schizophrenia that both Julie and Stephanie like apples more than oranges, and Julie also likes carrots more than peppers, what would the patient have the MOST trouble with?

A) remembering that Julie prefers apples
B) remembering that Julie prefers carrots
C) inferring that Stephanie prefers carrots
D) inferring that Stephanie prefers peppers

Question 6

As a child, Hunter had a favorite pet, a black furry cat that made him very happy. Based on the concept of a generalization gradient, which type of cat would be MOST likely to make Hunter happy now?

A) a dark gray cat
B) a yellow cat
C) a white cat
D) a calico cat

Question 7

To enable a network to accomplish negative patterning, one can:

A) use combinatorial explosion.
B) include consequential regions.
C) include shared elements.
D) use configural nodes.

Question 8

Lucy was bitten by a small white dog and now she has a fear of all dogs, regardless of their size or color. This is an example of:

A) negative patterning.
B) acquired equivalence.
C) generalization.
D) discrimination.

Question 9

Sienna learned that many vegetables tend to be green in color. When she later learned in school that vegetables are healthy, she inferred that foods that are green are healthy. That she made this inference is an example of:

A) acquired equivalence.
B) sensory preconditioning.
C) discrimination training.
D) negative patterning.

Question 10

Discrete-component representations provide a good description of:

A) the generalization gradient.
B) how animals learn negative patterning.
C) learning about highly dissimilar stimuli.
D) configural learning in categorization.

Question 11

Preston enjoys listening to piano music, and he enjoys listening to violin music, but he dislikes hearing both instruments played together in a duet. This is an example of:

A) discrimination training.
B) negative patterning.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) acquired equivalence.

Question 12

The mediation of behavior through responses to cues in the world is known as:

A) stimulus sampling theory.
B) distributed representation.
C) discrimination learning.
D) stimulus control.

Question 13

Lesions to the hippocampus lead to:

A) impaired performance on sensory preconditioning tasks but not on acquired equivalence tasks.
B) impaired performance on acquired equivalence tasks but not on sensory preconditioning tasks.
C) impaired performance on both acquired equivalence and sensory preconditioning tasks.
D) normal performance on both acquired equivalence and sensory preconditioning tasks.

Question 14

The primary sensory cortices are involved in determining:

A) which stimuli deserve expanded cortical representation.
B) what consequence has occurred following a response.
C) what information has been received in other sensory modalities.
D) what type of behavioral response should be made to a stimulus.

Question 15

Martha studied hard for her math test and found that she learned some study habits that helped her study for her physics test. This is an example of:

A) generalization.
B) discrimination.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) negative patterning.

Question 16

A distributed representation is one in which:

A) stimuli are represented by overlapping pools of nodes or stimulus elements.
B) nodes or neurons responding to physically similar stimuli are near each other.
C) a unique node is used to represent each individual stimulus feature.
D) all of the nodes detect unique combinations of cues.

Question 17

In the peak shift effect, discrimination training results in a maximum response to:

A) the nonrewarded stimulus.
B) the rewarded stimulus.
C) a stimulus value that is closer to the nonreinforced stimulus value.
D) a stimulus value that is far away from the nonreinforced stimulus value.

Question 18

Howard can tell from the way his baby cries whether she is hungry, needs changing, is sick, or is tired. This is an example of:

A) generalization.
B) discrimination.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) negative patterning.

Question 19

Jasmine quickly learned that she needed to use different techniques to calm her second child than those that had worked with her first child. This is an example of:

A) generalization.
B) discrimination.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) negative patterning.

Question 20

The transfer of past learning to new situations and problems is known as:

A) negative patterning.
B) acquired equivalence.
C) generalization.
D) discrimination.

Question 21

An automatic filtering based on information from a large number of other people's past behaviors is called:

A) distributed representations.
B) collaborative filtering.
C) the generalization gradient.
D) stimulus sampling theory.

Question 22

When a discrete-component representation is used, there is:

A) a lot of generalization.
B) no generalization.
C) no discrimination.
D) no discrimination or generalization.

Question 23

The shape of generalization gradients shows that two very similar stimuli are _____, while two very different stimuli are _____.

A) expected to produce similar consequences; expected to produce different consequences
B) expected to produce different consequences; expected to produce similar consequences
C) difficult to tell apart; easy to tell apart
D) easy to tell apart; difficult to tell apart

Question 24

The process by which one learns about new categories usually based on common features is known as:

A) negative patterning.
B) acquired equivalence.
C) generalization.
D) concept formation.

Question 25

Suppose a person reinforces a rat for responding to an 800-Hz tone and then observes that its response to a novel 750-Hz tone is about 50 percent of its response to the 800-Hz tone. The lower response to the 750-Hz tone occurs because the rat:

A) cannot tell the difference between the two tones, so it responds by guessing.
B) expects a 50-percent probability that its response will lead to a reward.
C) can hear the 750-Hz tone about half as well as the 800-Hz tone.
D) has learned to discriminate between the tones; therefore, it makes different responses to them.

Question 26

The process by which websites use a form of generalization to predict what one would buy is called:

A) discrete-component representation.
B) distributed representations.
C) the generalization gradient.
D) collaborative filtering.

Question 27

If a generalization gradient were a flat horizontal line, it would mean that:

A) very little generalization has occurred.
B) a lot of discrimination has occurred.
C) a lot of generalization has occurred.
D) both generalization and discrimination have occurred.

Question 28

_____ representations use a unique node to represent each individual stimulus.

A) Discrete-component
B) Distributed
C) Topographic
D) Consequential

Question 29

In the network model, each stimulus activates an input node that is connected by a layer of fixed weights to several nodes. This is known as:

A) stimulus sampling theory.
B) internal representation.
C) the connectionist model.
D) distributed representation.

Question 30

Freda once became sick after eating pepperoni pizza. Based on the idea of a generalization gradient, which food would she be MOST likely to avoid in the future?

A) spaghetti
B) broccoli
C) ice cream
D) sausage pizza

Question 31

Which model(s) can account for generalization?

A) only discrete-component models
B) only distributed models
C) both discrete-component and distributed models
D) neither discrete-component nor distributed models

Question 32

In a _____ representation, nodes or neurons responding to physically similar stimuli are near each other.

A) discrete-component
B) distributed
C) topographic
D) consequential

Question 33

If one trains a discrete-component model to respond to a blue light, how will it respond to a blue-green light?

A) It will respond as strongly as it does to the blue light.
B) It will respond less strongly than it does to the blue light.
C) It will respond more strongly than it does to the blue light.
D) It will not respond at all to the blue-green light.

Question 34

A set of stimuli in the world that share the same consequence as the stimulus whose consequence is already known is referred to as:

A) negative patterning.
B) consequential region.
C) the generalization gradient.
D) learned discrimination.

Question 35

If one trains a distributed model to respond to a blue light and then presents it with a blue-green light, it responds to the blue-green light because:

A) both lights activate the same input nodes.
B) the weights from the input nodes to the internal representation layer are fixed.
C) both lights activate some of the same nodes in the internal representation layer.
D) the blue-green input node activates the blue input node.

Question 36

In a _____ representation, stimuli are represented by overlapping sets of nodes or stimulus elements.

A) discrete-component
B) distributed
C) topographic
D) consequential

Question 37

The discrete-component model and the distributed model differ in that only the:

A) discrete-component model includes input nodes.
B) distributed model includes input nodes.
C) discrete-component model includes an internal representation layer.
D) distributed model includes an internal representation layer.

Question 38

The form in which information about stimuli is encoded within a model or brain is:

A) discrete-component representation.
B) stimulus representation.
C) the generalization gradient.
D) the configural node.

Question 39

The set of all stimuli that have the same consequence as the training stimulus is called the:

A) configural node.
B) topographic representation.
C) receptive field.
D) consequential region.

Question 40

The theory that states that the probability of a response will increase or decrease depending on the outcome that follows is:

A) stimulus sampling theory.
B) the law of effects.
C) the connectionist model.
D) distributed representation.

Question 41

If two stimuli differ within a single dimension-for example, tone frequency-the paradigm is referred to as:

A) extradimensional discrimination.
B) intradimensional discrimination.
C) the discrete-component model.
D) the generalization gradient.

Question 42

Dylan and Aaron both enjoy foreign films. If a person later learns that Dylan also enjoys riding dirt bikes, the person may infer that Aaron also enjoys riding dirt bikes. This is an example of:

A) acquired equivalence.
B) sensory preconditioning.
C) discrimination training.
D) negative patterning.

Question 43

Stimuli that differ across multiple dimensions for example tones and lights are known as:

A) extradimensional discrimination.
B) intradimensional discrimination.
C) the discrete-component model.
D) the generalization gradient.

Question 44

Negative patterning is difficult to learn because it requires the organism to suppress its tendency to:

A) make a motor response.
B) discriminate.
C) categorize.
D) generalize.

Question 45

Errorless discrimination learning does have some significant drawbacks. While it produces _____ and _____ learning of discriminations, later studies have shown that it is rigid and inflexible.

A) frustration; weak
B) lasting; essential
C) rapid; strong
D) slow; tedious

Question 46

Suppose one trains a dog to come running for food when one whistles a 60 dB whistle and also trains the same dog to NOT come running when one whistles a 70 dB whistle. According to the peak-shift effect, which whistle would then lead to the dog's fastest running?

A) 50 dB
B) 60 dB
C) 70 dB
D) 80 dB

Question 47

According to Spence, the peak-shift effect occurs because the:

A) observed response is given by the difference between the excitatory and inhibitory generalization gradients.
B) organism ignores the excitatory generalization gradient.
C) organism ignores both the excitatory and the inhibitory generalization gradients.
D) observed response is given by the inhibitory generalization gradient.

Question 48

Suppose one pairs a light and a tone in the first phase of a sensory preconditioning paradigm. If one then pairs just the light with a food pellet, such that the light elicits a salivation response, the tone presented alone will:

A) elicit no response.
B) elicit salivation only if the light is presented at the same time.
C) suppress salivation.
D) also elicit salivation.

Question 49

If parents use training wheels to aid their child in learning to ride a two-wheeler, they have adopted a variation of _____ learning.

A) consequential
B) discrimination
C) errorless discrimination
D) integral

Question 50

Sleep experts routinely advise good sleep hygiene that consist of:

A) soothing auditory stimulation.
B) promoting wakeful behavior.
C) limiting one's bedroom stimulus.
D) reading a book to promote relaxation.

Question 51

A training procedure in which difficult discrimination is learned by starting with an easy version of the task and proceeding to incrementally harder versions as the easier ones are mastered is referred to as _____ learning.

A) consequential
B) discrimination
C) errorless discrimination
D) integral

Question 52

Chloe learned that babies who cry a lot also have trouble sleeping. When she later learned that babies who have trouble sleeping tend to be highly intelligent, she inferred that babies who cry a lot are also highly intelligent. This relationship is an example of:

A) acquired equivalence.
B) sensory preconditioning.
C) discrimination training.
D) negative patterning.

Question 53

Training in which presentation of two stimuli together as a compound results in a later tendency to generalize what is known about one of these stimuli to the other is known as:

A) consequential learning.
B) sensory preconditioning.
C) error discrimination learning.
D) integral learning.

Question 54

Compared with the generalization gradient that is observed when no discrimination training is given, the generalization gradient that is observed after discrimination training is:

A) shallower.
B) steeper.
C) the same.
D) shallower or steeper, depending on the stimulus.

Question 55

What is the name of the phenomenon in which prior presentation of a compound stimulus results in a later tendency for learning about one stimulus of the compound to generalize to the other stimulus?

A) acquired equivalence
B) sensory preconditioning
C) discrimination training
D) negative patterning

Question 56

According to the text, the compound exposure in phase 1 establishes an association between the tone and light. In phase 2, the light becomes associated with the air puff, and this learning is directly transferred to the tone, too. This is referred to as:

A) similarity-based generalization.
B) meaning-based generalization.
C) acquired equivalence.
D) stimulus generalization.

Question 57

The mediation of behavior through responses to cues in the world is known as:

A) stimulus sampling theory.
B) distributed representation.
C) discrimination learning.
D) stimulus control.

Question 58

If one uses a red light and a blue light as stimuli in a negative-patterning task, one would reward responding:

A) to one light but not the other.
B) only when both lights are on at the same time.
C) only to a purple light.
D) to either light alone but not when both are on at the same time.

Question 59

Gavin often gets punched by Tyler, the school bully. Gavin is also afraid of Tyler's twin brother, Tristan, since Tristan looks just like Tyler. This is an example of:

A) similarity-based generalization.
B) meaning-based generalization.
C) negative patterning.
D) sensory preconditioning.

Question 60

In the peak-shift effect, the maximum response during generalization is:

A) to the nonreinforced stimulus.
B) to the reinforced stimulus.
C) shifted toward the nonreinforced stimulus.
D) shifted away from the nonreinforced stimulus.

Question 61

The homunculus in S1:

A) exaggerates some parts of the body and de-emphasizes others.
B) represents each body part equally.
C) represents the feet at the base of the cortex and the head at the top of the cortex.
D) has no representation of the face.

Question 62

The central tendency of an idealized version of a concept or category is referred to as the:

A) structure.
B) category.
C) concept.
D) prototype.

Question 63

Aidan plays well with his brother and with his sister, but, when Aidan tries to play with both of them together, the three of them just end up arguing. This is an example of:

A) discrimination training.
B) negative patterning.
C) sensory preconditioning.
D) acquired equivalence.

Question 64

It is obvious that all criminals have mothers. However, it is untrue that people who have mothers are criminals. This is an example of what type of reasoning?

A) inductive inference
B) natural categories
C) negative patterning
D) inverse reasoning

Question 65

In negative patterning, the connection from a configural node to the output node is given a:

A) negative weight that cancels the weights from the individual cues, leading to no response to the compound stimulus.
B) negative weight that cancels the weights from the individual cues, leading to an increased response to the compound stimulus.
C) weight of 0, leading to no response to the compound stimulus.
D) weight of 0, leading to an increased response to the compound stimulus.

Question 66

A division or class of entities in the world is referred to as a:

A) concept.
B) category.
C) prototype.
D) node.

Question 67

If one lesions the primary auditory cortex of a cat, the cat will:

A) not be able to respond to any tones.
B) be able to respond only to a particular tone.
C) not be able to discriminate between different tones.
D) not be able to generalize different tones.

Question 68

If a tone and shock are repeatedly paired, neurons in A1:

A) reduce their responding to the tone.
B) change their best frequency to correspond with that of the tone.
C) do not change their response to the tone.
D) reduce their response to tones of similar frequency.

Question 69

A psychological representation of a category of objects, events, or people in the world is referred to as a:

A) concept.
B) category.
C) prototype.
D) node.

Question 70

The process by which animals and humans learn to classify stimuli into categories is known as:

A) discrimination learning.
B) category learning.
C) configural learnaing.
D) negative patterning

Question 71

The different sensory cortices receive information about:

A) whether a salient event has occurred.
B) the other sensory modalities.
C) the nature of an important consequence.
D) the type of response to make.

Question 72

One solution to the problem of combinatorial explosion is to design a network in which:

A) there is no internal representation layer.
B) nodes in the internal layer can be designated as configural nodes as needed.
C) the weights between the input nodes and the internal layer are fixed weights.
D) the weights between the output nodes and the internal layer are fixed weights.

Question 73

The receptive field properties of A1 neurons can be explained by:

A) the consequential region.
B) the homunculus.
C) distributed representations.
D) discrete-component representations.

Question 74

Which statement is TRUE regarding configural nodes?

A) They are part of the input layer of a discrete-component representation.
B) They are part of the input layer of a distributed representation.
C) They respond only when a combination of input nodes are active.
D) Their connection to the output node has a positive weight.

Question 75

In a single-layer network using a discrete-component representation, negative patterning:

A) is represented by assigning a weight of 1 to one stimulus and a weight of 0 to the other.
B) is represented by assigning a weight of 1 to both stimuli and a weight of 0 to their combination.
C) is represented by assigning a weight of 1 to both stimuli and to their combination.
D) cannot be represented in any way that would make the network respond correctly.

Question 76

The rapid expansion of resources required to encode configurations as their number of component features increases produces:

A) the consequential region.
B) a combinatorial explosion.
C) the generalization gradient.
D) a topographic representation.

Question 77

A detector for a unique configuration of two cues such as a certain tone and light is known as:

A) similarity-based generalization.
B) acquired equivalence.
C) negative patterning.
D) configural nodes.

Question 78

_____ is a logical inference that is probably true and is usually based on attempts to draw a general rule from one or more specific instances or premises.

A) Discrimination learning
B) Inductive reasoning
C) Inductive inference
D) Negative patterning

Question 79

If one lesions the primary auditory cortex of a cat, the generalization gradient:

A) becomes negative.
B) acquires two or more peaks.
C) acquires a much sharper peak.
D) flattens out.

Question 80

Which statement is TRUE regarding the primary sensory cortices?

A) There is a specific cortical region dedicated to processing information from each sensory modality.
B) Each region of the cortex responds preferentially to a particular type of stimulus.
C) Neighboring cortical regions respond to similar stimuli.
D) All of the statements are true.