Deck 12: Experiments With More Than One Independent Variable

Question 1

Dr.Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design.How many independent variables are in his study?

A) 2
B) 4
C) 6
D) 8

Answer 1

2

Question 2

According to the textbook, why is it important to study interactions?

A) They are more scientific than other analyses.
B) Many outcomes in psychology are interactions.
C) They are more complicated than other analyses.
D) They are easier to understand than main effects.

Answer 2

Many outcomes in psychology are interactions.

Question 3

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. To determine if there is a main effect for type of activity, Dr.Elder must examine how many marginal means?

A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5

Answer 3

2

Question 4

Dr.Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study.In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable?

A) Variable A cancels out Variable B.
B) The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B.
C) Variable A mainly affects Variable B.
D) The effect of Variable A is mediated by Variable B.

Question 5

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. Which of the following reasons is the most likely reason Dr.Elder conducted a factorial design?

A) To determine whether a mediator was present in participants' ability to categorize
B) To test whether there is a difference between creating and searching for category members
C) To test whether there is a difference between thinking about a category and thinking about a category and its opposite
D) To test whether task type interacts with the effect of activity focus

Question 6

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. Which of the following best describes Dr.Elder's study?

A) A 2 × 2 crossed factorial design
B) A 4 × 2 nested factorial design
C) A 2 × 1 mixed factorial design
D) A 2 × 4 within-groups factorial design

Question 7

Which of the following CANNOT be said of the interaction in a study?

A) It can be determined by investigating marginal means.
B) It can exist even if the main effects are not significant.
C) It is almost always more important than a study's main effects.
D) There are multiple types of interactions (e.g., crossover interaction).

Question 8

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. In graphing the results of his study, which of the following would be true for Dr.Elder?

A) Dr. Elder would see a crossover interaction.
B) Dr. Elder would reach different conclusions based on which independent variable he put on the x-axis.
C) Dr. Elder would not be able to use a line graph.
D) Dr. Elder would see a difference between the differences for one variable but not the other variable.

Question 9

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. How many participant variables exist in Dr.Elder's study?

A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) 4

Question 10

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. By examining the marginal means, it appears that in this study:

A) There are no meaningful main effects.
B) There is a main effect of focus of the activity.
C) There is no significant interaction.
D) There is no main effect of type of activity.

Question 11

The mathematical way to describe an interaction is:

A) A difference in differences
B) A caveat
C) A qualified main effect
D) A patterned pattern

Question 12

The number of main effects that need to be examined is the number of independent variables.

A) more important than
B) equal to
C) unrelated to
D) independent of

Question 13

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. To make his study a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design, which of the following would Dr.Elder need to do?

A) Add a second dependent variable (quality of the category attributes listed)
B) Add a new manipulated variable (time to complete the task: 5 minutes versus 10 minutes versus 15 minutes)
C) Add a new participant variable (sex: males versus females)
D) Add a new independent variable (activity condition: alone versus with a friend)

Question 14

What are the two main reasons to conduct a factorial study?

A) To increase internal validity and to establish external validity
B) To compare participant variables and to establish covariance
C) To find moderators and to find mediators
D) To test limits and to test theories

Question 15

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. In graphing the difference between the differences, which of the following values would Dr.Elder use?

A) 6.5
B) 7.5
C) 9
D) 12

Question 16

Dr.Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design.Assuming he wants 25 people in each cell, how many participants does Dr.Gavin need to recruit?

A) 100
B) 150
C) 200
D) 250

Question 17

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. Which of the following could be said of the focus of activity variable in Dr.Elder's study?

A) There appears to be no main effect for the focus of activity variable.
B) A proper statistical test would be necessary to determine the effect of the focus of activity variable.
C) The focus of activity variable is a participant variable.
D) The focus of activity finding is not as important as the type of activity finding.

Question 18

RESEARCH STUDY 12.1: Dr.Elder was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories.For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, he was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first.For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? He is also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are exposed to category members compared with generating category members.Dr.Elder has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group).In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines.In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines.In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs.In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs.After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category.Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way.The results of his study are below. In Dr.Elder's study, how many possible main effects exist?

A) 1
B) 2
C) 3
D) 4

Question 19

In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is:

A) Main effect
B) Cell
C) Factor
D) Moderator

Question 20

Dr.Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design.How many cells are in his design?

A) 2
B) 4
C) 6
D) 8

Question 21

If a study has a difference in the differences, you know the study definitely has a:

A) crossover interaction.
B) significant main effect.
C) spreading interaction.
D) significant interaction.

Question 22

Which of the following phrases might a person encounter in a popular media article that indicates an interaction?

A) "Statistically significant"
B) "Mixed factorial design"
C) "It depends"
D) "Mediator variables"

Question 23

A simple difference is also called:

A) a factorial design.
B) a marginal means difference.
C) an interaction effect.
D) a main effect.

Question 24

Dr.Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design.How many main effects will Dr.Gavin need to examine?

A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 6

Question 25

Studies with one independent variable can show:

A) a difference in differences.
B) an interaction effect.
C) a simple difference.
D) a factorial effect.

Question 26

You read an article that states, "How well you remember different types of information depends on the context in which you learned them." Based on this information, what else is true about this study?

A) The influence of context on memory depends on the type of information presented.
B) You remember information best only when it's presented in a specific context.
C) There is no effect of context on memory.
D) There is an effect of information type on memory.

Question 27

Dr.Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 × 3 × 4 mixed factorial design.Which of the following things will NOT have to change?

A) The number of main effects that need to be examined
B) The number of interactions that need to be examined
C) The number of participants needed
D) The number of researchers needed

Question 28

If a person describes the results of a study to you by saying that there is a zero difference in one condition but a large difference in another condition, the person is most likely describing which of the following?

A) A crossover interaction
B) A spreading interaction
C) A three-way interaction
D) A difference interaction

Question 29

In popular media articles, why does the inclusion of participant variable information often denote a factorial design?

A) Participant variables are often used as moderators.
B) Participant variables are only found in factorial designs.
C) Studies with participant variables always find significant interactions.
D) Studies with participant variables are easier to write about.

Question 30

Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2 × 2 × 4 design." Based on this sentence alone, you would know which of the following pieces of information?

A) The number of participants in the study
B) The number of main effects that need to be examined
C) The statistical significance of the interaction
D) The number of participant variables

Question 31

The phrase "especially for" would be used to describe which of the following results?

A) Crossover interactions
B) Spreading interactions
C) One significant main effect
D) Two significant main effects

Question 32

Dr.Gavin is conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design.How many interactions will Dr.Gavin need to examine?

A) 1
B) 2
C) 3
D) 4

Question 33

A "difference in the difference between the differences" would indicate which of the following?

A) A crossover interaction
B) Multiple main effects
C) A three-way interaction
D) A within-groups factorial design

Question 34

Neely is examining the graph of an interaction and sees that one line is flat and one line rises sharply to the right.Which of the following should Neely conclude?

A) There is no interaction.
B) There is a crossover interaction.
C) There is a spreading interaction.
D) There is a main-effect interaction.

Question 35

What is the difference between a main effect and an overall effect?

A) Main effects are less important than overall effects.
B) Main effects are more complicated to determine than overall effects.
C) Main effects look at one variable at a time; overall effects look at all variables simultaneously.
D) There is no difference between main effects and overall effects.

Question 36

Imagine that you are reading a journal article and you see the following sentence: "The study used a 2 × 2 × 4 design." Where are you likely to have encountered this sentence?

A) The introduction
B) The Method section
C) The Results section
D) The Discussion section

Question 37

If a study describes the "difference in differences," what is the minimum number of variables the researchers were studying?

A) 1
B) 2
C) 3
D) 4

Question 38

An author might use all of the following methods to indicate statistical significance EXCEPT:

A) Using the word significant
B) Including an asterisk in a table
C) Using the notation p < 0.05
D) The inclusion of a graph

Question 39

Dr.Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 × 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 × 4 within-groups factorial design.Which of the following things will change?

A) The number of main effects that need to be examined
B) The number of interactions that need to be examined
C) The number of participants needed
D) The number of cells

Question 40

What does the author of the textbook mean when she writes, "We don't live in a main effect world"?

A) She means that psychologists do not like to examine main effects.
B) She means that main effects are not important.
C) She means that interactions are common in everyday life.
D) She means that studies that produce interactions are the only studies worth conducting.

Question 41

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Using the marginal means, state whether it appears that the main effects in Dr.Lopez's study are important.(You do not need to say whether the main effects are statistically significant but simply whether a difference appears to exist.)

Question 42

Dr.Green is interested in conducting a 2 × 2 × 3 within-group factorial design, with 20 participants in each cell.How many participants does she need overall?

A) 20
B) 40
C) 80
D) 240

Question 43

Imagine that you read the following passage in a popular magazine.Should you conclude that the original article found evidence of an interaction? Why is or isn't there evidence of an interaction?
"One study had participants watch a crime show.Half the participants watched a documentary of a murder that took place in rural Virginia, while the other half watched a movie adaptation of the same murder.The effect of viewing a crime show on people's fear of being a victim of crime depends on the participants' sex, with women in general being more fearful regardless of which show they saw, whereas men reported more fear after watching the documentary."

Question 44

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Using factorial notation, describe Dr.Lopez's study.Given this information, how many main effects and interactions will Dr.Lopez need to examine?

Question 45

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Using the data table alone, discuss whether Dr.Lopez should conclude that an interaction exists in his study.

Question 46

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Name the independent variables in this study and describe their levels.

Question 47

State the three types of factorial designs.

Question 48

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below.
Provide a graph of the possible interaction in Dr.Lopez's study and discuss whether Dr.Lopez should conclude that an interaction exists in his study.

Question 49

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Imagine that Dr.Lopez decides to add another variable to his study.He is curious as to whether the results of the study vary based on sex (male and female).Using factorial notation, describe Dr.Lopez's study.Given this new study design, how does this change the number of cells, main effects, and interactions in Dr.Lopez's study?

Question 50

Provide two reasons a researcher would want to conduct a factorial study.

Question 51

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Imagine that Dr.Lopez decides to manipulate the pain duration differently.He now has three levels of this variable: 2 minutes, 4 minutes, and 6 minutes.Using factorial notation, describe Dr.Lopez's study.Given this new study design, how does this change the number of cells, main effects, and interactions in Dr.Lopez's study?

Question 52

Explain why researchers care about interactions more than main effects.

Question 53

Dr.Green is interested in conducting a 2 × 2 × 3 mixed factorial design, with 20 participants in each cell.Which of the following would NOT be a possible number of participants for this study?

A) 20
B) 40
C) 60
D) 80

Question 54

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Using Dr.Lopez's study as an example, explain why an interaction can be described as "a difference in differences."

Question 55

Imagine that you read the following passage in a journal article.Provide three pieces of information that this passage tells the reader about the study conducted.
"A 3 × 4 within-subjects design was specified that varied color of paper (blue, pink, white) and font size (10 point, 12 point, 14 point, 16 point).The time it took participants to read the printed word was measured."

Question 56

Why are factorial designs useful in testing theories?

A) They allow researchers to explore the construct validity of a theory.
B) Results from factorial designs are typically straightforward and easy to interpret.
C) They allow researchers to understand the nuances of how variables interact.
D) Results from factorial designs are always intuitive.

Question 57

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Imagine that Dr.Lopez decides to add an additional variable to his study.He is curious as to whether the results of the study vary based on sex (male and female).The graphs of the results are below.Discuss whether Dr.Lopez should conclude that a three-way interaction exists in his study.

Question 58

RESEARCH STUDY 12.3: To study the effects of physical discomfort on attention, Dr.Lopez conducted the following study: A group of participants were required to keep one hand submerged in cold water (52 degrees).Half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 2 minutes, and half of the participants kept their hand in the water for 4 minutes.In addition, half of the participants were given a placebo pill and told it would reduce the pain of the water (pain relief assumed).The other half were given a placebo pill and told that it would have no effect (no pain relief assumed).While their hands were in the water, participants were asked to watch a video where a ball is quickly passed between and underneath three cups.At the end of the video, participants were asked to indicate under which cup the ball could be found.Whether or not the participant picked the correct cup was recorded (as a measure of whether they were paying attention).The results are below. Using Dr.Lopez's study as an example, explain why an interaction is often described by saying "it depends."