Deck 9: Knowledge

Question 1

In this chapter we have seen how networks can be constructed that link different levels of concepts. In Chapter 7 we saw how networks can be constructed that organize knowledge about a particular topic (see Figure). Create a network that represents the material in this chapter by linking together things that are related. How is this network similar to or different from the semantic network in Figure? Is your network hierarchical? What information does it contain about each concept?
The Figure shows an organized tree for some of the material about encoding presented in this section of the chapter.

The Figure shows a Collins and Quillian?s (1969) semantic network. Specificconcepts are indicated in color. Properties of concepts are indicated at the nodes for each concept. Additional properties of a concept can be determined by moving up the network, along the lines connecting the concepts. For example, moving from ?canary? up to ?bird? indicates that canaries have feathers and wings and can fly. The dashed lines indicate the distance in the network from canary to bird and from bird to animal.

Answer 1

A concept is the understanding of language or something which involves other cognitive functions such as memory and reasoning. The main function of concepts is to group different things into categories depending on its characteristics and this makes the understanding of world very easily.
Depending on the concepts and categories, semantic network has been constructed by Allan Collins and Quillian. This network consisted of nodes which represent a particular category or concept and are connected by links depending on their properties.

The Figure shows a Tree representing an example of a semantic network The above tree is similar to semantic network in a way that to describe one of the concepts, such as oak tree, we have to travel from below as in semantic network. Oak is a tree category which does not produce flowers but has barks and branches, and comes under plant category and is a living thing.
The above tree is different from the semantic network in a way that it does not contain any node. The properties of plant and animals are mentioned right below the category without extending any links for mentioning them.
Yes, the above tree is hierarchical as the concepts are organized according to the levels of importance. All the concepts are arranged with a single uppermost element. The information contained at each concept or level of concepts is their property. For example, properties of Salmon is mentioned at its uppermost element that it has scales and gills, it can swim, it is a type of fish, it comes under animal category and is a living thing.

Question 2

Do a survey to determine people's conception of "typical" members of various categories. For example, ask several people to name, as quickly as possible, three typical "birds" or "vehicles" or "beverages." What do the results of this survey tell you about what level is "basic" for different people? What do the results tell you about the variability of different people's conception of categories?

Answer 2

Elinor Rosch proposed that a typical prototype of a category is an average based on the members that are commonly experienced. For example, for the category of birds the most commonly seen ones, crow, sparrow become the typical prototype.
There is always seen a basic level of categorization which is different for different people. And this level is different for different people and often depends on ones individual knowledge of that particular category or example
When asked to name three typical birds people usually named crows, pigeons and sparrows. On asking for names of three typical vehicles people gave different answers. Some said cars, bikes and trucks while a few stated three names of different cars. Now this was because car is a typical example of a vehicle, and when asked to give examples for it they think of the typical prototype and name different cars instead of vehicles. Bikes and bicycles are also vehicles but they do not come up as they have different features than the typical four wheelers.
Family resemblance is when items in a category have similar features. Low family resemblance is when features of one object is quite different than the other family members whereas high family resemblance predict similar features are more. Bicycles and bikes have low family resemblance as they have two wheelers while cars and trucks with high family resemblance have four wheelers.
The difference in the examples giving by the two groups of people state that the level of basic knowledge is different. For the ones who just stated names of cars had a bias towards cars in vehicles probably because they are around them a lot on a daily basis or have a background knowledge in them, while the others do not.

Question 3

Try asking a number of people to name the objects pictured in Figure. Rosch, who ran her experiment in the early 1970s, found that the most common responses were guitar, fish, and pants. Notice whether the responses you receive are the same as or different from the responses reported by Rosch. If they are different, explain why you think this might have occurred.
The figure shows Stimuli for the Naming Things demonstration.

Answer 3

In the given figure, there are three different objects, that is, guitar, fish and pants. Rosch did an experiment by showing the participants these three objects and asking them to identify them. Their answers were guitar or rock guitar, fish and pants. Among the three levels of categories, participants answered with the basic names. The basic names are familiar with most of the people but the specific names are known only to the experts of particular field.
When I asked the people who are not experts in any of the field mentioned in the picture, I got the same response from the participants such as guitar, fish and pants. They can easily identify the object with the basic names and not with specific names. They even do not identify them with their global names.
On asking a musician, his response was bass guitar, fish and pants. On asking a fish expert, his response was guitar, specific name of fish and pants. In a similar manner, on asking a textile expert, his response was guitar, fish and jeans. This shows that depending on learning and their experiences, people identify different objects with their different level of categories. The different levels of categories of these three objects are given as follows:
Thus, the response of non-experts is with the basic names and the experts respond with the specific names. The knowledge about the concepts or objects can help people name by specificity as they know well about the specific information and properties about them.

Question 4

Why is the use of categories so important for our day-to-day functioning?

Question 5

Describe the definitional approach to categories. Why does it initially seem like a good way of thinking about categories, but then become troublesome when we consider the kinds of objects that can make up a category?

Question 6

What is the prototype approach? What experiments did Rosch do that demonstrated connections between prototypicality and behavior?

Question 7

What is the exemplar approach to categorization? How does it differ from the prototype approach, and how might the two approaches work together?

Question 8

What does it mean to say that there are different levels within a category? What arguments did Rosch present to support the idea that one of these levels is "privileged"? How has research on categorization by experts led to modifications of Rosch's ideas about which category is "basic" or "privileged"?

Question 9

What is the basic idea behind the semantic network approach? What is the goal of this approach, and how did the network created by Collins and Quillian accomplish this goal?

Question 10

What is the evidence for and against the Collins and Quillian model? How did Collins and Loftus modify the model to deal with criticisms of the Collins and Quillian model, and how were these modifi cations received by other researchers?

Question 11

What are some of the properties of a good psychological theory? How have these properties been applied to semantic network theories?

Question 12

What is a connectionist network? Describe how a connectionist network learns, considering specifically how connection weights are adjusted. Also consider how the way information is represented in a connectionist network differs from the way it is represented in a semantic network.

Question 13

How are categories represented in the brain? Describe evidence from single neuron recording in monkeys, the effects of brain damage in humans, and human brain imaging.

Question 14

How is the ability of young infants to form categories measured? Trace the development between 2 and 7 months of infants' ability to categorize. What abilities are added after 7 months?