Deck 4: Critical Thinking and Scientific Reasoning

Question 1

Suppose that a clinical researcher measured individuals' scores first on an inventory of their current state of anxiety and then separately on a measure of their current state of depression. The researcher found that as anxiety scores increased, depression scores also tended to increase. This relationship is an example of a:

A) causal relationship.
B) negative correlation.
C) positive correlation.
D) hypothetical relationship.

Answer 1

positive correlation.

Question 2

Gaia does not believe in Darwin's theory of evolution. She went online and visited a number of creationist websites that made claims that evolutionary theory was wrong. She did not visit any reputable websites that provided evidence supporting evolutionary theory. Which thinking error is Gaia showing?

A) "After this, because of this" reasoning
B) Illusory correlation
C) Confusing correlation with causation
D) Confirmation bias

Answer 2

Confirmation bias

Question 3

Darya looks at evidence and decides that the phase of the moon is associated with abnormal behavior, even though she has found a relationship that does not exist between the two variables. This situation MOST likely demonstrates the thinking error of:

A) confirmation bias.
B) confusing correlation with causation.
C) illusory correlation.
D) post hoc reasoning.

Answer 3

illusory correlation.

Question 4

Correlational studies have shown that people who graduate from college tend to make more money than people who do not graduate from college. The MOST appropriate conclusion that can be drawn from this fact is that graduating from college:

A) leads to higher income later.
B) produces higher incomes later.
C) causes subsequent increases in income.
D) is associated with higher income later.

Question 5

A psychoanalyst predicts from psychoanalytic theory that an insecure student is likely to join a fraternity as a way to strengthen his ego, demonstrating Freud's defense mechanism of identification by wanting to be part of a group. If the student never joins the fraternity because he wants time to study, the psychoanalyst could explain this decision as the defense mechanism of rationalizing instead of identification. Which kind of thinking error has occurred in this situation?

A) Illusory correlation, in which the psychoanalyst found a pattern in random data that is not there
B) Mistaking correlation for causation, concluding that the cause of the problem has been found when the variables are only correlated
C) Failing to make an argument, which occurred because psychoanalysis is pseudoscientific
D) Explaining away an unpredicted or unwanted outcome to show that psychoanalysis is not falsifiable

Question 6

Which statement is TRUE about people's ability to detect correlation?

A) Research by Smedsland (1977) showed that people are quite good at detecting correlation.
B) People do not pay enough attention to data in cell "a" of fourfold tables that show co-occurrences.
C) People show illusory correlation in estimating associations in research data but not in everyday situations.
D) People often find associations between variables in random data when no relationship is present.

Question 7

Franz Gall observed a soldier who had received a knife wound through his eye, damaging the frontal lobe on the left side of his brain. The man could no longer speak. After careful observation of the man's behavior, Gall described and analyzed the soldier's problem. Based on the study design, when used as evidence, Gall's research could not:

A) show cause and effect.
B) be considered a scientific study.
C) be relevant to theories of the brain.
D) provide detailed information about a specific case.

Question 8

Psychological science takes an empirical approach, which means it relies on:

A) making causal inferences.
B) careful reasoning.
C) making verifiable observations.
D) proving that hypotheses are true.

Question 9

According to the text, the criteria and rules that help scientists decide whether one kind of evidence is better than another are called scientific:

A) research methods.
B) rules of inference.
C) standards of evidence.
D) rules of engagement.

Question 10

A speech therapist conducted a study using Facilitated Communication (FC) to assist an autistic man communicate by helping him type messages on a computer keyboard. Before using FC, the man had been able to speak only a few words; with FC, the man could communicate in long sentences. The speech therapist concluded that FC was effective in helping autistic people to use their previously untapped language and intellectual abilities that they had been presumed to lack. The research evidence provided in this scenario was from a:

A) correlational study.
B) case study.
C) true experiment.
D) quasi-experiment.

Question 11

A(n) _____ is the predicted relationship between two or more variables.

A) explanatory observation
B) scientific law
C) theory
D) hypothesis

Question 12

Which statement is TRUE about science as a method of inquiry?

A) Science can answer any question as long as the scientist reasons correctly.
B) Science combines systematic observation and rules for effective reasoning.
C) Science relies on informal observation.
D) Science uses only careful reasoning to answer the questions it poses.

Question 13

Ron was researching his favorite presidential candidate in his political party. He went to the party's website, which listed all of the candidates, but he read about only his favorite candidate. Ron concluded that he will vote for her and did not read more about any other candidate. Which thinking error is Ron MOST likely committing?

A) Illusory correlation
B) Mistaking causation for correlation
C) Confirmation bias
D) Post hoc reasoning

Question 14

Predictions made by scientific hypotheses can be proved false, which means that scientific knowledge allows for _______ in science.

A) testing
B) self-correction
C) induction
D) plausibility

Question 15

Franz Gall observed a soldier who received a knife wound through his eye to the frontal lobe on the left side of his brain. The man could no longer speak. After careful observation of the man's behavior, Gall described and analyzed the soldier's problem. Which kind of scientific research design did Gall use?

A) Correlational study
B) Case study
C) True experiment
D) Quasi-experiment

Question 16

Because science provides a way to show that hypotheses are wrong (the principle of falsifiability), it has the advantage of providing for:

A) self-correction.
B) accuracy.
C) being provable.
D) being completely true.

Question 17

Caleb continued to believe the misconception that the phase of the moon is associated with abnormal behavior. He paid attention to times when the moon was full and people were behaving abnormally, but ignored the times when people were behaving abnormally and the moon was not full. Caleb has committed the thinking error of:

A) confusing correlation with causation.
B) post hoc reasoning.
C) confirmation bias.
D) illusory correlation.

Question 18

As Kevin took his exam, he looked over each true/false question and thought about how confusing the test was for him. After a while, he seemed to observe a pattern: Every time a question confused him, the answer seemed to be false. Kevin was surprised when he got his test back and found that an equal number of confusing items were true and false. Which of the following thinking errors was involved in Kevin's perceived pattern of true/false answers?

A) Falsification
B) Confusing correlation with causation
C) Post hoc reasoning
D) Illusory correlation

Question 19

Which of these is NOT one of the three criteria for showing causation?

A) Eliminating plausible alternative explanations
B) Showing time-order
C) Showing covariation
D) Showing plausibility

Question 20

When a cognitive psychologist measures hypothetical constructs about memory by counting the number of words that participants recall in a learning experiment, the psychologist is using a(n):

A) quasi-experimental design.
B) operational definition of memory.
C) approach that allows for a causal inference.
D) philosophical approach to research.

Question 21

A psychologist found a significant correlation between a history of childhood physical abuse and the likelihood of a person later becoming aggressive. Other researchers conducting correlational studies replicated this finding. What is the BEST conclusion that the psychologist can draw from the results of these studies?

A) Early physical abuse causes later aggression.
B) Early physical and sexual abuse causes later aggression.
C) Early physical abuse is related to later aggression.
D) Later aggression is the result of early physical abuse.

Question 22

Roneice said, "Lots of people who have been abused as children later become abusers themselves. I think experiencing abuse as a child causes people to become abusers." This common psychological misconception:

A) is based on an illusory correlation.
B) confuses correlation with causation.
C) shifts the burden of proof.
D) makes excuses for a failed hypothesis.

Question 23

Using survey results as evidence can be advantageous because surveys:

A) provide high-quality data.
B) allow for causal inferences to be made.
C) can show cause and effect.
D) tend to allow a lot of data to be economically collected.

Question 24

A neurologist measured a woman's ability to form visual images after she suffered brain damage to the visual cortex in her occipital lobe. He observed that the visual images she could form were severely reduced in size. After describing her imagery ability and the extent of her brain damage, the neurologist concluded that her reduced ability to form visual images was related to the brain damage. The kind of evidence used in this study is likely to have which of the following limitations?

A) It may be unique and not generalize to other people.
B) It may be based on an authority who lacks expertise.
C) It is based on clinical opinion without support of evidence.
D) It is based on what is believed to be true about brain damage.

Question 25

Jane Goodall studied primates and made many important discoveries about chimpanzee behavior when she studied these animals in their natural environment. Goodall used a _____ research design for her study.

A) participant observer
B) quasi-experiment
C) correlational study
D) field study

Question 26

An educational psychologist is interested in finding out whether a new instructional program is effective in teaching students a second language. She randomly assigns students to two groups. She trains one group with the program, and then compares the performance of this group with another group that does not get the program. This kind of study is best described as _____; it _____allow for a causal inference to be drawn.

A) a correlational study; does
B) a quasi-experiment; does not
C) naturalistic observation; does
D) a true experiment; may

Question 27

Research has shown that self-esteem is significantly positively correlated with academic performance. Some educators have argued that we should improve the self-esteem of students to improve their academic performance. Which thinking error are these educators making?

A) "After this, therefore because of this" reasoning
B) Confusing correlation with causation
C) Circular reasoning
D) Confirmation bias

Question 28

A psychologist wants to find out how often college students in serious relationships cheat on their partners. She conducts a survey research study asking college students a number of questions about their relationships, including confidential questions about cheating. Which of the following is a limitation of using a survey as evidence in the study of cheating behavior?

A) Survey research will not allow a researcher to see whether the degree of commitment is related to cheating.
B) Survey respondents may not respond honestly about such experiences.
C) Survey research is not likely to allow the researcher to collect very much data.
D) Survey research is not as good as conducting a correlation study that can show cause and effect.

Question 29

When David Taylor infiltrated the Heaven's Gate cult, he observed that new members did not endorse all of the beliefs of the group, but the strength of their endorsement increased the longer they were in the cult. What is the most appropriate conclusion that can be drawn from the Balch and Taylor study?

A) Joining the cult led members to eventually believe even the most extreme ideas.
B) Becoming a cult member caused a person to believe at least some of the cult's ideas.
C) The beliefs of cult members were caused by their cult experience.
D) Greater acceptance of the cult's beliefs was related to being in the cult for a longer period of time.

Question 30

A researcher randomly assigned participants to two different types of personality description that she said were based on their astrological sign. The descriptions were actually very similar and differed only in how general or specific they were. The group that received general information rated the description as more accurate than the group that received more specific descriptions. What conclusion may be drawn from this study?

A) A general personality description may cause a person to think the general description is more accurate.
B) A specific personality description may cause a person to think the general description is more accurate.
C) A general personality description is related to a person thinking the description is less accurate.
D) No good conclusion can be drawn from this study.

Question 31

An important advantage of naturalistic observation studies is that they:

A) allow for causal inferences to be made.
B) allow for considerable control of extraneous variables.
C) do not allow for manipulation of an independent variable.
D) allow findings to be generalized to the real world.

Question 32

Rotton and Kelly (1985) wrote a literature review examining whether the phase of the moon was related to abnormal or deviant behaviors. They reported that 36 studies found no relation between the two variables, and one study found a significant relation. What is the BEST conclusion someone can draw regarding whether the phase of the moon is related to abnormal behavior?

A) A person can conclude that the full moon does not cause abnormal behavior because so many studies have shown that it has no effect.
B) People should wait until more studies are done before they draw a tentative conclusion.
C) A person can tentatively conclude that the phase of the moon is not related to abnormal behavior based on the quantity of evidence.
D) A person can conclude that the phase of the moon is clearly related to abnormal behavior based on the quality of the evidence.

Question 33

Devin was worried about taking his statistics exam, even though he studied diligently. On the morning of the exam, he wore his favorite, softest shirt so that he would be comfortable during the test. When he received a surprisingly high grade, Devin said to himself, "I think it was the shirt; it is lucky and helped me do well." Which thinking error is Devin MOST likely making?

A) Circular reasoning
B) Confusing correlation with causation
C) Confirmation bias
D) Post hoc "after this, therefore because of this" reasoning

Question 34

A neurologist measured a woman's ability to form visual images after brain damage to her visual cortex. He observed that the visual images she could form were severely reduced in size. After describing her imagery ability and the extent of her brain damage, the neurologist concluded that the woman's reduced ability to form visual images was related to the brain damage. The kind of evidence being offered is from a(n):

A) field study.
B) anecdote.
C) case study.
D) quasi-experiment.

Question 35

Dr. Robert Balch and his graduate student David Taylor studied a UFO cult that later was called Heaven's Gate. Cult members believed that they were chosen to rendezvous with aliens from space. In the 1980s, Taylor infiltrated the group to study it undercover, interacting and observing members for more than a year. The type of research evidence provided by Taylor was a:

A) participant-observer field study using naturalistic observation.
B) case study of an individual group member who described his beliefs.
C) true experiment comparing the beliefs of older to newer members.
D) quasi-experiment comparing the beliefs of older to newer members.

Question 36

Survey research studies that examine the association between responses to different questions are often:

A) correlational studies.
B) case studies.
C) naturalistic observational studies.
D) true experiments.

Question 37

The Balch and Taylor participant observer study (1977) on the Heaven's Gate group is most similar to a:

A) field study with naturalistic observation.
B) case study.
C) correlational study of survey data.
D) quasi-experiment.

Question 38

What is an advantage of survey research and the evidence it provides?

A) Survey research allows a researcher to show the causes of behavior.
B) Survey respondents truthfully report about their experience.
C) Survey research is an economical way to collect data.
D) Survey research is a better method than conducting a correlation study.

Question 39

A psychologist wanted to find out how the hours that college students work at part-time jobs relate to their grades. She conducted a survey research study asking college students to report if they were employed and how many hours they worked per week. By using a survey, the researcher has the advantage of being able to:

A) show that working more hours leads to poorer grades.
B) count on respondents truthfully reporting about their experience.
C) show that working more hours causes poorer grades.
D) collect a lot of data showing a relation between the two variables.

Question 40

A researcher randomly assigned participants to two different types of personality description that she said were based on their astrological sign. The descriptions were actually very similar and differed only in how general or specific they were. The group that received general information rated the description as more accurate than the group that received more specific descriptions. This research is a:

A) correlational study.
B) case study.
C) true experiment.
D) quasi-experiment.

Question 41

Rosario wants to research the study technique of cramming for her research methods class. Which research method should Rosario use to test her hypothesis and find out whether massing study time (cramming) causes better memory and so is an effective way to study for a test?

A) Quasi-experiment
B) True experiment
C) Correlational study
D) Naturalistic observation study

Question 42

Compare and contrast different research methods/designs used as sources of evidence in terms of their strengths and weaknesses.

Question 43

Spanos and his colleagues (1991) classified subjects into two different groups based on their level of belief in reincarnation (rebirth into a new body) and past-life regression. Spanos hypnotized the two groups and gave them the suggestion to go back to a former life. The researchers found that the group that believed in reincarnation and past-life regression was more likely to report having regressed to a former life. Spanos conducted a _____ in which _____ is possible.

A) true experiment; a causal inference
B) true experiment; association between variables
C) quasi-experiment; at times a causal inference
D) quasi-experiment; only an association

Question 44

Assuming the study is conducted properly, which research design can allow for causal inferences to be made?

A) Correlational study
B) Case study
C) True experiment
D) Quasi-experiment

Question 45

A researcher randomly assigned two groups of 40 students each to read a vague passage. One group read a passage with a descriptive title that helped make sense of the passage. The other group read the same passage but without a title. The experimenter then tested students' memory of the reading by counting the number of ideas correctly recalled from the passage. In this study, the _____ is the dependent variable.

A) presence or absence of a title preceding the passage
B) number of ideas correctly recalled
C) individual differences in students' memory ability
D) number of students in the sample

Question 46

A university did a study to find out whether having a part-time job is related to academic performance. The office surveyed 1,200 students on how many hours they worked per week and other information, including each student's grade-point average. The results showed that the more hours students worked at jobs, the lower their grades tended to be. The university concluded that working part-time causes students to have less time for schoolwork, which leads to lower grades. The BEST analysis of this conclusion is that the university is:

A) correct in making a causal inference from their data because it had such a large sample.
B) wrong to make a causal inference from its data because survey data of this sort do not allow causal inferences.
C) correct in its conclusion because conducting a survey research study allowed the researchers to ask many research participants very specific question.
D) wrong to make a causal inference from its data because those data were not collected using at least a quasi-experimental research design.

Question 47

Randomly assigning participants to treatment groups can help control individual differences in participants before treatment is administered. This is MOST related to which criterion or criteria for showing causation?

A) Time order
B) Covariation
C) Time-order and covariation
D) Elimination of plausible alternative explanations

Question 48

Which of the following studies provides the STRONGEST evidence to support a scientific claim?

A) Correlational study
B) True experiment
C) Quasi-experiment
D) Case study

Question 49

Two psychiatrists conducted an experiment to test the effectiveness of a new drug expected to help people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The researchers tested 60 clients with OCD, randomly assigning 30 to a group that received the drug and 30 to a placebo control group that received a pill without the drug. The use of a placebo control group and random assignment are most closely related to which criterion for showing causation?

A) Eliminating plausible alternative explanations for why the drug might be effective
B) Covariation, or showing that the drug and OCD symptoms are associated
C) Time-order, or showing that the drug was administered before its effectiveness was tested
D) They are equally related to all three criteria for showing causation.

Question 50

Which statement is TRUE concerning the kind of evidence that typically provides relatively better support for a claim in a scientific argument?

A) An anecdote is better than a case study.
B) A case study is better than a true experiment.
C) A case study is better than an anecdote.
D) A correlation study is better than a true experiment.

Question 51

A true experiment is said to have _____ when the independent variable and no other variable has caused the changes in the dependent variable.

A) covariation
B) external validity
C) internal validity
D) time order

Question 52

Which kind of evidence provides stronger support than the other kinds for an inductive argument in psychology?

A) Testimonial
B) Case study
C) Anecdote
D) Commonsense belief

Question 53

A scientist makes a prediction from an established theory, conducts an experiment to test this hypothesis, obtains data consistent with the hypothesis, and concludes that the theory has been strengthened. Which characteristic(s) BEST describe(s) the thinking that the scientist is engaging in?

A) Scientific problem solving and creative thinking
B) Scientific thinking that is leading to confirmation bias
C) Deductive reasoning and then inductive reasoning
D) Deductive reasoning to arrive at a creative hypothesis

Question 54

Suppose one research study compared a group of males to a group of females, and another research study compared a group of introverts to a group of extroverts. These two studies are examples of:

A) correlational studies.
B) quasi-experiments.
C) true experiments.
D) field studies.

Question 55

Suppose a cognitive psychologist was studying how scientists think. Her focus was on how scientific thinking moves from an initial state to a goal state as scientists arrive at a solution. The approach that the psychologist is taking views scientific thinking as a kind of:

A) deductive reasoning.
B) inductive reasoning.
C) creative thinking.
D) problem solving.

Question 56

A researcher wanted to test the study-time hypothesis. She randomly assigned 30 students to study a passage for 10 minutes and another 30 students to study for 20 minutes, and then had all of the students answer 10 multiple-choice questions to test their memory of the passage. She tested all participants in her quiet laboratory. The independent variable is the:

A) number of questions answered correctly.
B) amount of time for study.
C) quiet conditions in the laboratory.
D) number of participants.

Question 57

A potential limitation of true experiments is that they:

A) cannot show covariation as well as studies that use correlation.
B) may control variables so much that it is difficult to generalize findings to the real world.
C) are ultimately unable to show causation and can show only time-order and elimination of plausible alternative explanations.
D) cannot accurately reflect time-order, in which one event must occur before another.

Question 58

Explain how people might mistakenly infer that causation is present when no cause-and-effect relationship exists. Illustrate with examples.

Question 59

Which statement describes a limitation of the scientific approach?

A) Science can be done only by people who are highly trained.
B) Science is ultimately just descriptive and cannot explain phenomena.
C) Science can study only those things upon which observations can be made.
D) Science has no apparent limitations.

Question 60

In a well-controlled experiment, an educational psychologist randomly assigned two groups of students to study the same list of words. One group studied for 10 minutes, and a second group studied the same list for 5 minutes. The group studying for 10 minutes later recalled significantly more words than the 5-minute-study group. The MOST appropriate conclusion that can be drawn from this research is that more study time:

A) was associated with better recall.
B) was related to better recall.
C) caused better recall.
D) was related to worse recall.