Deck 3: Inductive Reasoning in Psychology and Everyday Life

Question 1

Which statement is true about inductive reasoning versus deductive reasoning?

A) Deductive reasoning can lead to a conclusion about which one is certain.
B) Inductive reasoning can lead to a conclusion about which one is certain.
C) One can be certain about a conclusion drawn from both inductive and deductive reasoning.
D) Neither inductive reasoning nor deductive reasoning allows one to be certain about a conclusion drawn.

Answer 1

Deductive reasoning can lead to a conclusion about which one is certain.

Question 2

Inductive reasoning is often described as proceeding from:

A) specific cases to a general rule or principle.
B) an argument to a specific case
C) a general rule or principle to a specific case.
D) a conclusion to a premise.

Answer 2

specific cases to a general rule or principle.

Question 3

In a discussion about the benefits of exercise on health, someone says, "Exercise is not always good for you, because I know a guy from my town who used to run 3 miles a day and then died at age 45 of a heart attack." In this argument, which type of evidence is used and what is its limitation?

A) A testimonial (personal experience) that is subject to illusion and bias
B) An anecdote that may be unique, not repeatable, and not generalizable
C) A commonsense belief that may be prevalent but not necessarily true
D) A statement of authority that is not based on actual expertise or knowledge

Answer 3

An anecdote that may be unique, not repeatable, and not generalizable

Question 4

Which kind of reasoning is used the most by scientists to justify their theories?

A) Formal reasoning
B) Everyday reasoning
C) Deductive reasoning
D) Inductive reasoning

Question 5

A plausible claim is MOST related to judging that claim by:

A) how credible a source appears to be.
B) how reasonable a claim seems, given what is known.
C) whether a person agrees with some claim that has been made.
D) whether someone is trying to trick someone else.

Question 6

The point that psychologist William James was making with his example of finding a white crow when a claim states that all crows are black was that:

A) white crows are extremely rare and finding one is a coincidence.
B) finding a single white crow can refute the claim that all crows are black.
C) finding a white crow shows that there can be no certainty in deductive reasoning.
D) a white crow is a legitimate form of evidence, just as valid as a black crow.

Question 7

Roberto's friend had an out-of-body experience one afternoon after lying down on the sofa for a nap. The friend told him that he could see his body lying full length below him as if he had perceived it and not simply dreamed it. From this incident, Roberto said that he had come to believe that the mind can actually leave the physical body. Roberto is using _____ as evidence.

A) an anecdote
B) a statement of authority
C) commonsense belief
D) scientific evidence

Question 8

To convince someone of reincarnation (rebirth into a new body), Ravi-a Hindu from India-said: "In India, I heard about a young boy who knew details about a man who had been a soldier and was killed in a war, even though the boy had been born 10 years after the soldier's death. The soldier's wife verified the things that the young boy said about the soldier." Which kind of evidence is Ravi using?

A) Commonsense belief
B) An anecdote
C) A statement of authority
D) Something similar to scientific evidence

Question 9

Visual illusions, errors in memory, and naive realism are especially problematic for which kind of evidence?

A) Commonsense belief
B) Anecdotes
C) Personal experience
D) Statements of authority

Question 10

Ravi-a Hindu from India-said, "In India, I heard about a young boy who knew details about a man who had been a soldier and was killed in a war, even though the boy had been born 10 years after the soldier's death. The soldier's wife verified the things that the young boy said about the soldier." Ravi also said, "This is proof that the soldier had been reborn, or reincarnated, in the body of the boy." Ravi made a basic argument because:

A) his claim was based on the statement of an authority.
B) his evidence was the commonsense belief in reincarnation.
C) he was drawing a conclusion based on anecdotal evidence.
D) the soldier's wife verified the so-called facts the boy recalled.

Question 11

Psychologists who are aware of the limitations of inductive reasoning in drawing conclusions are reluctant to say that any experiment or other study "proved" that a hypothesis is true. These psychologists know that such conclusions are:

A) like deductive conclusions.
B) assumed to be true.
C) tentatively true.
D) subjectively true.

Question 12

Greenwald and his colleagues (1991) found that subliminal learning tapes did not help participants improve their memory on objective memory tests, though subjectively the participants believed their memory had improved. This experiment:

A) raised doubts about the quality of objective measures of memory.
B) raised questions about the accuracy of reports of personal experience.
C) suggested that people did not realize that their memory may not improve.
D) suggested that participants may have been cheating on the memory tests.

Question 13

Which of the following is true about the findings of the experiment on subliminal learning tapes by Greenwald and his colleagues (1991)? This experiment:

A) showed that subliminal learning tapes are a fast way to objectively improve memory.
B) showed that subliminal learning tapes helped participants improve their memory on objective memory tests.
C) supported the idea that subliminal learning tapes work.
D) showed that the idea that subliminal learning tapes work is a psychological misconception.

Question 14

Miya and Zach were discussing whether coffee improves concentration. Miya told Zach that caffeine did help because a friend of hers usually had trouble concentrating during tests, but one time when her friend drank coffee before taking a test, the friend had no trouble concentrating-and even scored an A on the exam. Which kind of evidence is Miya using?

A) An anecdote
B) A statement of authority
C) A commonsense belief
D) Empirical evidence

Question 15

The paranormal claims of parapsychology about ESP do not seem reasonable given what is known in physics about the transmission of energy and what is known in psychology about perception. Consequently, these claims:

A) seem plausible.
B) seem implausible.
C) are unworthy of further consideration.
D) should be taken to be real until science proves otherwise.

Question 16

The physician and anatomist Paul Broca observed a man named Tan and other cases of people who had trouble speaking and who also had damage to the left side of the brain. When Broca generalized from these different observations that damage to the left side of the brain resulted in speech problems, he used _____ reasoning to draw a conclusion.

A) nonscientific
B) faulty
C) deductive
D) inductive

Question 17

Of the following, the BEST one-word synonym for plausible is:

A) probable.
B) possible.
C) reasonable.
D) certain.

Question 18

Which kind of reasoning is used to generalize or draw a general conclusion from several bits of evidence?

A) Formal reasoning
B) Deductive reasoning
C) Inductive reasoning
D) Everyday reasoning

Question 19

Lauren was talking to a classmate about emergency situations in which a person needs help right away. She said that everyone knows that a person is better off if there are a lot of people around to help because there is strength in numbers. From this, she concluded that if someone is in trouble, that person is much more likely to be helped when there is a crowd around than if there is just one other person available to help. Which kind of evidence is Lauren using?

A) Commonsense belief based on a psychological misconception
B) A statement from authority that is not identified
C) An anecdote about situations in which someone needs help that may be unique
D) Empirical evidence collected in psychology experiments

Question 20

A problem with personal experience as evidence is that it tends to be:

A) subjective.
B) objective.
C) deductive.
D) inductive.

Question 21

Most of the high-quality evidence from the literature review in the textbook supports the conclusion that critical thinking (CT) can be taught, especially when explicit CT instruction is employed. What is the MOST appropriate conclusion that can be drawn from this statement?

A) It can be tentatively concluded that explicit CT instruction is effective in helping students improve their CT.
B) The literature review of the research proves that critical thinking can be taught though explicit CT instruction.
C) It cannot be concluded that explicit CT instruction is effective in helping students improve their CT skills.
D) No good conclusion can be drawn because some of the evidence did not support the conclusion.

Question 22

In response to Tom Cruise's 2006 remarks criticizing psychiatrists for using harmful techniques, such as shock therapy and overprescribing drugs, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) referred to the many research studies showing the effectiveness of certain drugs in the treatment of mental disorders. It further argued that psychotherapy is used effectively to treat such problems. Who should people believe and why?

A) Tom Cruise, because his argument is based on his extensive reading about the dangers of psychological and psychiatric treatments.
B) Tom Cruise, because he does not have a conflict of interest, unlike the psychiatrists who prescribe drugs.
C) The APA, because its counterargument is based on scientific research and Cruise may not know about effective treatments.
D) Neither, because both have a vested interest in their respective positions without providing any good evidence in support.

Question 23

After finding out that Julie had been cheating on him, Malik said he couldn't forgive Julie for her infidelity. Joey, Malik's best friend, said, "I couldn't forgive her either. Maybe you should break up with her." Malik said, "I think you're right, Joey. I've always been able to trust your judgment about women. I'm going to tell Julie I want to break up, tomorrow." Which is true about these statements?

A) Joey is not making an argument, only conversing with Joey.
B) Malik is treating Joey's judgment as a statement of authority in making his decision to break up with Julie.
C) Malik is using Joey's personal experience to support his decision to break up with Julie.
D) Joey was trying to make a decision for Malik, so no argument was made.

Question 24

In a discussion about marital infidelity, Maria said, "I would trust a woman more not to cheat in a relationship than a man, because everyone knows that men are more promiscuous than women." Maria is using a(n) _____ as evidence.

A) rumor
B) anecdote
C) statement of authority
D) commonsense belief

Question 25

Which of the following thinking errors results from going past the data or exaggerating what a study has found to say so that the research implies more than the data support?

A) Sweeping generalization
B) Arguing from ignorance
C) Hasty generalization
D) Circular reasoning

Question 26

In a 2006 TV interview, the actor Tom Cruise criticized psychiatrists, a position consistent with Scientology, for using harmful techniques such as shock therapy. Cruise maintained that he understood the problems with psychiatry because he had studied its history. Cruise concluded that the interviewer did not understand the dangers of psychiatry because the interviewer had not studied the history. Which kind of evidence was Cruise providing?

A) An anecdote about himself
B) A statement of authority made by himself
C) A commonsense belief that he held
D) Scientific evidence that he cited

Question 27

The problem with making a sweeping generalization is that a person may:

A) generalize past or go beyond what is indicated by the evidence.
B) fail to sufficiently consider all of the relevant evidence in reasoning inductively.
C) base reasoning on ignorance and shift the burden of proof.
D) search for evidence that confirms a favored prior belief or conclusion.

Question 28

The strongest of inductive conclusions is most appropriately called a _____ conclusion.

A) sound
B) valid
C) cogent
D) deliberate

Question 29

Steve went to an astrologer, who predicted he would have a business success in the near future. The next day, Steve was offered a promotion at work. Caitlin said that she knew of a well-controlled study that tested the predictions of astrologers and found they could not predict future events at better than chance levels. Which evidence should people trust MOST in drawing a conclusion about astrology?

A) The scientific study, because it is based on more objective, systematic observations that can be replicated.
B) The scientific study, because scientific research is never subject to personal bias and does not make incorrect predictions.
C) The personal experience, because it is more real and compelling.
D) The personal experience, because science cannot really study unusual phenomena such as predicting the future.

Question 30

Which of these claims is NOT a psychological misconception?

A) People who say they have precognition can accurately predict the future.
B) Subliminal learning is an effective way to learn.
C) People commonly repress traumatic memories from childhood.
D) Brain cells do not reproduce and people do not acquire new ones during their lives.

Question 31

Commonsense belief may seem more persuasive because of the contribution of a psychological _____ effect.

A) better-than-average
B) word-superiority
C) false-consensus
D) good-practice

Question 32

Hakeem read an advertisement for a self-help program to stop smoking. In the ad, a famous athlete said that as a former smoker, he knew how important it was for physically active people to quit smoking and that the program was the most effective one available. Hakeem tried the program but it didn't seem to help him quit. What is the main problem or limitation with the kind of evidence used in the advertisement that seems to have persuaded Hakeem?

A) Common sense suggests that not all people would be helped by a self-help program.
B) The famous athlete seems to be basing his comments on pseudoscience.
C) The story the athlete told is unique and may not be able to be repeated.
D) The famous athlete may not be in a position to know how effective the self-help program is.

Question 33

When the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on national health insurance reform legislation in 2012, many people thought the conservative court would rule it unconstitutional. A CNN reporter read the first page of the multipage decision, which seemed to suggest that the Court had ruled the health insurance reform plan unconstitutional. The reporter announced that the Court had struck the legislation down as unconstitutional. Later, however, the unread pages of the document made it clear that the Court had ruled it was constitutional. What is the thinking error involved in this example?

A) Sweeping generalization
B) Illusory correlation
C) Argument from ignorance
D) Hasty generalization

Question 34

The strength of an inductive conclusion, such as an evaluation of the evidence found in a literature review, should depend on a well-reasoned evaluation of the _____ of the evidence.

A) vividness and consistency
B) timeliness and appropriateness
C) quality and quantity
D) cleverness and order

Question 35

A police investigator interviewing a witness to a murder told the witness to imagine that she was going back to the scene of the crime. He further told her that her memory was like a video recorder and she would recall details very accurately if she imagined the crime this way, just as if watching it on television. The police interviewer's approach is showing which problem with thinking?

A) Committing the red herring fallacy
B) Making a sweeping generalization
C) Making a hasty generalization
D) Showing naive realism

Question 36

Statements of authority provide the strongest evidence in scientific discussions when they are based on statements that are:

A) made by a person who has written a popular book or article on the subject.
B) consistent with what most people believe to be true about the subject.
C) consistent with findings from high-quality scientific research on the subject.
D) made by someone with personal experience related to the subject.

Question 37

Rotton and Kelly (1985) wrote a literature review on whether the phase of the moon was related to people's abnormal or deviant behaviors. They reported that 36 studies found no relation between the two variables, and one study that found a significant relation. Assuming that Rotton and Kelly are scientific authorities on this question, which is the BEST evaluation of the support provided for the conclusion that the phase of the moon is related to people's abnormal behavior?

A) One cannot draw a conclusion about this relation because one study has not supported the conclusion.
B) One should wait until more studies are done before a person is even able to draw a tentative conclusion about this relation.
C) One can conclude tentatively that the phase of the moon is not related to abnormal behavior based on the quantity of evidence.
D) One can conclude tentatively that the phase of the moon is related to abnormal behavior based on the quality of the evidence.

Question 38

Whether a bit of evidence is a kind of nonscientific evidence (a statement of authority, an anecdote, or a personal experience) versus a kind of scientific evidence depends on the:

A) quality of evidence.
B) quantity of evidence.
C) validity of the argument form.
D) degree of the evidence.

Question 39

An important limitation that anecdotes and testimonials share in terms of the support they can provide is _____ evidence, with ____.

A) quality of the evidence.
B) quantity of the evidence.
C) validity of the argument form.
D) degree of the evidence.

Question 40

A critical difference between science and nonscience is that science relies on:

A) informal, observational techniques.
B) carefully made observations.
C) complex research equipment.
D) people who have become experts in their field.

Question 41

Committing the red herring fallacy involves sidetracking an argument away from the issue. This is a problem because well-reasoned conclusions should:

A) be based on an evaluation of all of the relevant evidence.
B) not make assumptions that are unwarranted and unchecked.
C) not go beyond the evidence supporting a conclusion.
D) take into account how much supporting evidence is offered.

Question 42

Leah found a picture of a dress on the Internet that looked blue to her, but she had heard some people thought it looked brown. She said to her friend Emma, who also thought it looked blue, "How could anyone think this dress is brown? We can see with our own eyes that it is clearly blue." Leah is MOST likely making the thinking error of _____, but could _____ to help fix or avoid that thinking error.

A) the red herring fallacy; ask other people a more relevant question about which color they perceive the dress to be
B) hasty generalization; ask other people to view the dress and then go with the majority's opinion about the color
C) naive realism; seek scientific verification of the wavelengths of light that affect subjective perception of color
D) sweeping generalization; find the range within which most people consistently perceive a color and limit her conclusion to that

Question 43

Nasim was conducting a door-to-door survey of people's opinions about a plan developed by the city that would improve public transportation in the area but also likely raise taxes. He began in a more affluent part of the city and found almost unanimous opposition to the plan. When he reached the point at which 97% of respondents opposed the plan, he decided it would be futile to survey less affluent areas. Which strategy is MOST likely to help fix or avoid the thinking error that Nasim seems to be making?

A) Ask each person who responded to the survey if that individual is directly answering the question and, if not, to return to the issue at hand.
B) Look for all of the relevant data that could be collected and determine whether the sample is representative and adequate.
C) Seek objective verification of perceptions, such as from other observers or from measures using scientific instrumentation.
D) Find the range within which most of the cases and evidence are consistent with and do not extend beyond a conclusion.

Question 44

Which strategy is MOST likely to help a person fix or avoid making a sweeping generalization?

A) Ask a person who has strayed from or avoided the issue at hand to return to the issue at hand.
B) Look for all of the relevant evidence and determine whether the samples are representative and adequate.
C) Seek objective verification of perceptions, such as from other observers or from measures using scientific instrumentation.
D) Find the range within which most of the cases and evidence are consistent and do not extend beyond a conclusion.

Question 45

Which strategy is MOST likely to help fix or avoid the red herring fallacy?

A) Ask a person who has strayed from or avoided the issue at hand to return to the issue at hand.
B) Look for all of the relevant evidence and determine whether the samples are representative and adequate.
C) Seek objective verification of perceptions, such as from other observers or from measures using scientific instrumentation.
D) Find the range within which most of the cases and evidence are consistent with and do not extend beyond a conclusion.

Question 46

A psychologist read the literature review in the textbook on whether critical thinking can be taught. After examining all of the evidence, she concluded that the evidence suggested that critical thinking could be improved through proper instruction and that, therefore, creative thinking could be improved as well. Which thinking error has the psychologist made?

A) Hasty generalization
B) Sweeping generalization
C) Argument from ignorance
D) Asserting the consequent

Question 47

Explain how nonscientific evidence differs from scientific evidence.

Question 48

According to Andrea, in the last two decades temperatures have risen at unprecedented rates, and this suggests that human activity has been contributing to global warming. Shimon responded, "No way, the earth is just going through a warming cycle." Andrea said that Shimon's counterargument is not relevant because a global warming cycle occurs over a longer period of time. Which thinking error is Shimon MOST likely making?

A) Red herring fallacy
B) Naive realism
C) Sweeping generalization
D) Hasty generalization

Question 49

Distinguish between how deductive and inductive reasoning are used in psychology and what each can show.