Deck 12: Superstition, Magic, Science, and Critical Thinking

Question 1

Which statement is TRUE about belief in superstition?

A) Belief in superstition is not found in scientifically educated people.
B) Superstitions are irrational beliefs and so have no benefit to people.
C) Superstitions are found in many people who endorse scientific ideas.
D) Superstitions should always be promoted because they reduce stress.

Answer 1

Superstitions are found in many people who endorse scientific ideas.

Question 2

Unlike the claims made in modern science, the claims made about the forces operating in traditional superstitions and magical thinking are_____ and _____.

A) pseudoscientific; not replicable
B) illusions; hallucinations
C) psychological misconceptions; false
D) paranormal; supernatural

Answer 2

paranormal; supernatural

Question 3

Superstitions are:

A) essentially pseudoscientific beliefs.
B) irrational and always should be resisted because they do not help people.
C) heuristics that people use to explain difficult everyday situations.
D) often attributed to the beliefs of other people's religion.

Answer 3

often attributed to the beliefs of other people's religion.

Question 4

The example of the Martin Luther, the sixteenth-century founder of Protestantism who criticized the Catholic Church and papacy, illustrates how people:

A) have mostly replaced superstitious belief with a scientific approach to nature.
B) like Luther rejected superstitious beliefs such as witchcraft.
C) who adhere to one belief system often say people who adhere to another belief system are superstitious.
D) in the modern era have largely rejected the superstitions of earlier times, such as those in Luther's time.

Question 5

Which occupation is more likely to include a higher proportion of people who engage in a superstitious ritual?

A) Jet fighter pilots
B) Grocery store clerks
C) Office workers
D) Carpenters

Question 6

The text describes psychologist B. F. Skinner's study of how pigeons began bobbing their heads and twirling around in the "Skinner box" before they received a food reward. This study led Skinner to explain the acquisition of superstitions in terms of:

A) "after this, therefore because of this" reasoning.
B) motivational theory and reward.
C) operant conditioning and learning theory.
D) classically conditioned responses that reduced stress.

Question 7

What do superstitions and psychological misconceptions have in common?

A) Both are kinds of pseudoscience.
B) Both are often associated with commonsense belief and intuition.
C) Both are plausible and based on what we know from science.
D) They both claim to have a scientific basis by those who believe in them.

Question 8

According to the text, B. F. Skinner's finding that pigeons could acquire superstitious behaviors through operant conditioning has been demonstrated:

A) only with pigeons.
B) with pigeons and children.
C) with pigeons, children, and college students.
D) with pigeons, children, and the elderly.

Question 9

Jordan had a dream that later seemed to come true. Jordan concluded that the dream accurately predicted the later event, and he wondered if this was some kind of psychic ability that had been manifested. The MOST plausible alternative explanation for this situation is that Jordan:

A) underestimated the rate of coincidental events.
B) showed the gambler's fallacy.
C) exhibited the conjunction fallacy.
D) inappropriately reasoned from representativeness.

Question 10

The BEST explanation of how the Hall-of-Fame baseball player Wade Boggs acquired his belief that he should eat chicken as part of his pre-game ritual is that he:

A) began to perceive that when he ate chicken, he tended to get hits, forming an illusory correlation.
B) observed other players engaging in similar rituals and imitated their behaviors through social learning theory.
C) tried many different strategies to improve his hitting and settled on eating chicken before each game.
D) grew up in a family that believed in many superstitions and observed many superstitious rituals.

Question 11

The psychological misconception that people repress memories of traumatic events is used in the text to:

A) demonstrate how a superstition could at the same time be a psychological misconception.
B) show that some superstitious beliefs are also pseudoscientific beliefs.
C) illustrate how superstitious beliefs differ from psychological misconceptions because superstitious beliefs do not try to explain behavior and mental processes.
D) explain how this superstitious belief began as a psychological misconception and became a superstition.

Question 12

Paulo had a dream that his father would have a car accident. About a month later, his father was in an automobile accident. Recalling his dream, Paulo wondered if he had precognition and his dream had warned him of the future event. The MOST plausible explanation for Paulo's experience is that he:

A) did have precognition because the two events were most likely linked.
B) underestimated the probability of coincidental events occurring.
C) experienced a real connection between a mental prediction and a physical event.
D) connected the two events as an example of the conjunction fallacy.

Question 13

In a park, Maci saw one pigeon that would turn in a circle one way and then turn in a circle the opposite way before it approached any person who was about to feed it. She wondered why it engaged in this pattern of behavior. Based on the studies by B. F. Skinner, which explanation BEST accounts for the pigeon's behavior?

A) The pigeon was showing post hoc ("after this, therefore because of this") reasoning.
B) The sight of food in Maci's hand motivated the pigeon.
C) The pigeon learned the superstitious behavior through operant conditioning.
D) A park visitor shaped and reinforced the pigeon's behavior.

Question 14

The superstition that witches can cause storms and diseases by casting spells is a:

A) pseudoscientific belief.
B) paranormal belief.
C) psychological misconception.
D) kind of thinking error.

Question 15

Which statement about the relationship between science and superstition is FALSE?

A) In the 1600s, scientific explanations were increasingly offered to explain supernatural phenomena.
B) In the 1800s, superstitious ideas became the subject of scientific investigation.
C) In recent years, scientists have been able to show that many superstitions are implausible.
D) In recent years, people have rejected all superstitions after accepting scientific ideas.

Question 16

Research suggests that engaging in superstitions rituals might help athletes by:

A) helping them manage the stress associated with uncertain outcomes when the stakes are high.
B) allowing them to blame any poor performance on superstitious practices that did not actually help them.
C) helping them believe that they have better skill or ability than any of their competitors.
D) helping them try new training activities that they might otherwise be afraid to attempt.

Question 17

The BEST explanation of why the Hall-of-Fame baseball player Wade Boggs engaged in so many superstitious behaviors before and during a game is that he:

A) was a very religious person and so was more prone to hold superstitious beliefs and engage in superstitious rituals.
B) had a tendency to be obsessive-compulsive and, therefore, his psychological condition made him prone to superstitious rituals.
C) followed superstitious rituals that may have helped him make his time at bat seem less risky and more predictable.
D) grew up in a family that believed in many superstitions, and so from a young age he learned to be superstitious.

Question 18

The psychological misconception that some people are left-brained and some people are right-brained is used in the text to:

A) demonstrate how a superstition could at the same time be a psychological misconception.
B) distinguish between superstitious beliefs and incorrect ideas derived from science.
C) illustrate how superstitious beliefs differ from psychological misconceptions because superstitious beliefs do not try to explain behavior and mental processes.
D) explain how this superstitious belief began as a psychological misconception and became a superstition.

Question 19

Scientific-minded people often object that individuals who believe in witchcraft and the supernatural are superstitious. Which reason BEST supports this objection as either valid or not valid?

A) It is not valid because scientific-minded people are using an approach that cannot substantiate its claims.
B) The objection of scientific-minded people is not valid because scientists are known to be biased in their opinions, too.
C) It is valid because the objection of scientific-minded people is based on high-quality research demonstrating that superstitious beliefs are likely wrong.
D) Scientific-minded people hold beliefs that are more modern, while people who endorse superstitions are maintaining very old ideas.

Question 20

How do superstitions differ from pseudosciences?

A) People who believe in superstitions do not have mistaken ideas about probability.
B) Superstitions are not associated with scientifically implausible claims.
C) People do not claim that a superstition has a scientific basis.
D) Superstitions are what uneducated people believe.

Question 21

Risen and Gilovich (2007) conducted an experiment in which participants estimated the chances that a student in a large lecture class would be called on to answer a question based on assigned reading if the student had either done the assigned reading or not. Which outcome BEST describes what participants tended to estimate when the student had not done the reading?

A) They correctly estimated that the student would be more likely to be called on.
B) They incorrectly estimated that the student would be more likely to be called on.
C) They correctly estimated that the student would be less likely to be called on.
D) They correctly estimated that the student would be neither more nor less likely to be called on.

Question 22

Damisch, Stroberock, and Mussweiller (2010) conducted a series of experiments on whether having a lucky charm could improve performance. Half of the college student participants had a lucky charm available during performance of experimental tasks, such as remembering pairs of cards, while the other half did not. Which statement BEST describes the study findings?

A) The students with the lucky charm performed no better than at chance levels, as would be expected if superstitions are irrational and ineffective.
B) The students with the lucky charm performed worse than students who did not have a lucky charm available because they were overconfident.
C) The students with the lucky charm performed significantly better than students who did not have a lucky charm available.
D) Those students in both groups who believed in lucky charms performed better than those who did not.

Question 23

Madison and Ashley were in many theater productions together, and Madison always said, "Break a leg" to Ashley before a performance. Although it seemed silly at first, Ashley came to believe that Madison's saying this to her really did give her luck before a performance. The kind of thinking error shown in this example is most similar to:

A) magical thinking, and more specifically the law of contagion.
B) post-hoc, ergo propter hoc ("after this, therefore because of this") reasoning.
C) a reluctance to tempt fate or push her luck.
D) magical thinking, and more specifically the law of similarity.

Question 24

B. F. Skinner studied how pigeons began bobbing their heads and twirling around in the "Skinner box" after being operantly conditioned with a food reward. His research is most consistent with the idea that superstitions are:

A) irrational and based on paranormal beliefs.
B) based on thinking errors.
C) innate.
D) learned behaviors.

Question 25

Rozen and his colleagues found that study participants often would not eat some good chocolate when it had been shaped to look like a turd or an insect. This response is MOST related to:

A) the law of similarity.
B) not wanting to tempt fate or push your luck.
C) people's mistaken ideas about coincidence.
D) apparent mental causation.

Question 26

If a person believes that the Haitian voodoo ritual of sticking pins into a doll that looks like an enemy will produce actual physical harm to the enemy, then that person's behavior seems to be influenced by:

A) "after this, therefore because of this" reasoning.
B) inappropriate reasoning by representativeness.
C) inappropriate use of the availability heuristic.
D) the law of contagion.

Question 27

In cultures where magic is practiced, people may use an amulet (a charm that is shaped like an animal) to give them the characteristics of the animal. For example, wearing a bear amulet might give a person strength. This belief seems to be the operation of the _____ heuristic.

A) representativeness
B) availability
C) illusory correlation
D) superstition

Question 28

People who hold superstitious beliefs tend to engage more in:

A) disordered thinking usually associated with mental disorders.
B) Type 1 thinking.
C) Type 2 thinking.
D) emotional thinking.

Question 29

According to the text, a Canadian dentist paid $32,000 on eBay for Beatle John Lennon's decayed molar. This example was used to illustrate:

A) the law of contagion.
B) the law of similarity.
C) the law of attraction.
D) overestimating coincidences.

Question 30

Not wanting to put on a mass murderer's sweater but wanting to hold a pen owned by Albert Einstein is MOST related to:

A) the law of sympathetic magic.
B) the law of contagion.
C) people's mistaken ideas about coincidence.
D) apparent mental causation.

Question 31

Erol had been thinking negative thoughts about Sophia because she had "dumped" him for another guy right before Christmas. Steve said to Erol, "Hey, did you hear that Sophia got really sick?" After hearing this news, Erol felt guilty, because he had been hoping something bad would happen to her. Erol's belief that maybe he had influenced this event BEST illustrates the influence of:

A) the law of contagion.
B) the law of similarity.
C) overestimating coincidences.
D) apparent mental causation.

Question 32

The text describes the influence of the law of contagion as a kind of overgeneralization, or sweeping generalization, in that people under its influence tend to:

A) avoid contact with all people whom they believe could have a disease, even when those people cannot transmit the disease to others.
B) engage in faulty inductive reasoning, in which they lack sufficient information to draw a well-reasoned conclusion.
C) believe in superstitious ideas that are stereotypes about people and so shun other people for being different from them.
D) generalize beyond the diseases individuals know they have and conclude that they also have other diseases.

Question 33

Damisch, Stroberock, and Mussweiller (2010) conducted an experiment that had college students remember cards in a memory game. One group did this in the presence of a lucky charm of their choosing, and another group did the task without the charm. Participants also rated their self-efficacy after the task. The results of the experiment showed that the group with the lucky charm performed _____ on the task and gave themselves a _____ rating for self-efficacy.

A) worse; higher
B) better; higher
C) worse; lower
D) better; lower

Question 34

Which position does the author of this textbook take on how to deal with false claims of superstitions?

A) Nothing needs to be done about superstitions because they are mostly harmless, false beliefs.
B) Superstitions are always a serious problem because they are based on irrational beliefs.
C) Belief in superstitions should be encouraged because they can be beneficial as a way to reduce stress.
D) Superstitions become a problem to be dealt with when they are maladaptive and can cause harm.

Question 35

Damisch, Stroberock, and Mussweiller (2010) conducted a series of experiments on whether having a lucky charm could improve performance. One of the studies showed clear benefits of superstition on cognitive performance, while an experiment by Calin-Jageman and Caldwell (2014) attempted but failed to replicate the Damisch et al. findings. Which is the BEST interpretation of the results from both studies?

A) The two studies suggest that engaging in superstitious behaviors can enhance cognitive performance.
B) The discrepancy in the results of the two studies raises questions about whether engaging in superstitious behaviors can enhance cognitive performance.
C) The Damisch et al. study provides clear evidence that engaging in superstitious behaviors can enhance cognitive performance, and others agree.
D) The discrepancy in the results of the two studies leads to the conclusion that engaging in superstitious behaviors does not enhance cognitive performance.

Question 36

Seta learned that an uncle who had been in a serious car accident was in critical condition in the hospital. She had recently been thinking about her uncle and had the feeling he was going to die. When later he died, Seta wondered if her thinking about her uncle's death had something to do with what happened. Which kind of magical thinking is this experience MOST like?

A) The law of contagion
B) The law of similarity
C) Tempting fate
D) Apparent mental causation

Question 37

Which statement is true about reducing the superstitious belief that witches cause AIDS, especially as this belief is found in Africa?

A) Science education will eventually eliminate this irrational belief once people are shown it is inconsistent with science.
B) Science education may reduce this belief, but some people go to both traditional healers and practitioners who use evidence-based medicine.
C) Science education has not even been tried in Africa, so we cannot yet know if it will eradicate the irrational belief in witchcraft as a cause of AIDS.
D) It is an ethical problem and not a problem for science education, so science education is not relevant.

Question 38

Monica was attending her introductory psychology class with 300 students in a large lecture hall. In the previous class, the instructor randomly called on people to answer questions about the chapter as a way to check whether they had done the reading. Suppose Monica has not done the assigned reading. How likely is it that she would be called on compared to if she had done the reading?

A) More likely than if she had done the reading.
B) Less likely than if she had done the reading.
C) More likely than if she had not done the reading.
D) Just as likely if she had or had not done the reading.

Question 39

Humans' ability to rapidly develop conditioned aversions to foods that have made them sick and the seemingly natural discovery of quarantine are MOST related to the law of:

A) large numbers.
B) small numbers.
C) similarity.
D) contagion.

Question 40

The Hall-of-Fame basketball player Michael Jordan always wore his college University of North Carolina shorts under his Chicago Bulls uniform, apparently committing the thinking error of _____, which may have been the basis for this superstitious behavior.

A) naive realism
B) belief perseverance
C) post hoc ("after this, therefore because of this") reasoning
D) misapplication of the representativeness heuristic and magical thinking

Question 41

Provide two examples of the inappropriate application of the representativeness heuristic and one example of an appropriate application. Explain how each example fits the description of the representativeness heuristic and what might be the consequences in each case.

Question 42

Why do people make errors in judging the probability of events? Explain what psychologists have learned about the reasons for such judgment errors.