Deck 7: Eyewitness Identification and Testimony

Question 1

One promising technique for improving the ability of an eyewitness to remember important information accurately is to relax the eyewitness and mentally reinstate the context surrounding the crime. This approach is known as a:

A) regulatory focus.
B) guided cognition.
C) focused interrogation.
D) cognitive interview.

Answer 1

cognitive interview.

Question 2

Elizabeth Loftus (1984) examined 347 cases in which _____ eyewitness testimony. She found that the defendant was _____ in most cases.

A) the only evidence was; acquitted
B) the only evidence was; convicted
C) there was a mistaken; convicted
D) there was a mistaken; acquitted

Answer 2

the only evidence was; convicted

Question 3

In 1998, the American Psychology-Law Society (APLS) made recommendations on how to reduce the number of incorrect identifications by changing some system variables. A 2014 report by the National Academies of Science added some more guidelines to the APLS's recommendations. The current best practices include all of the following procedures, EXCEPT:

A) Sequential lineups should be preferred to simultaneous ones.
B) Eyewitnesses should be instructed that the true criminal may not be in the lineup.
C) Eyewitnesses should be asked how confident they are in their identification before they are given any feedback about their pick.
D) All identification procedures should be recorded on video.

Answer 3

Sequential lineups should be preferred to simultaneous ones.

Question 4

Cutler, Penrod, and Dexter (1990) conducted several experiments exposing mock jurors to expert testimony about the _____ of eyewitness identification. The authors of this study found that participants who were NOT exposed to the expert testimony _____ the accuracy of eyewitnesses.

A) threats to the accuracy; underestimated
B) threats to the accuracy; overestimated
C) accuracy; disregarded
D) accuracy; improved

Question 5

When describing memory, _____ is the first component required in the process necessary for retention.

A) storage
B) retrieval
C) top-down processing
D) encoding

Question 6

Research findings indicate that there are several drawbacks to using hypnosis in forensic settings. Which one of the following statements about the use of hypnosis is INCORRECT?

A) People remember less but what they do recall under hypnosis is more accurate.
B) Hypnosis can elicit false memories.
C) The effects of suggestive questioning are amplified under hypnosis.
D) After hypnosis, eyewitnesses are more confident about what they remember.

Question 7

When assembling a lineup, it is very important to make sure that the suspect does not stand out from the _____ because a biased lineup can lead to the _____.

A) scripts; identification results being thrown out by the judge
B) scripts; true suspect not being recognized by the eyewitness
C) fillers; innocent suspect being misidentified by the eyewitness
D) fillers; true suspect not being recognized by the eyewitness

Question 8

According to psychologists who study memory, it is useful to distinguish between _____ component processes.

A) two
B) three
C) four
D) five

Question 9

The term _____ is part of memory processing. It means gathering information and putting it into a form that can be useful later on.

A) storage
B) retrieval
C) encoding
D) heuristics

Question 10

To improve the accuracy of eyewitnesses' identifications, social scientists can assist the legal system in improving _____ variables.

A) dependent
B) system
C) predictor
D) estimator

Question 11

Tracy witnessed two men holding up a bank, both wearing camouflage pants. When questioned about the crime, she had a good recall for the pants and described these pants in detail to the police. When she was questioned about the crime a month later, she still remembered the pants but had a poor recall for other details. This phenomenon is known as:

A) decay theory.
B) retrieval inhibition.
C) unconscious transference.
D) the bystander effect.

Question 12

The three components of the memory process are:

A) recall, recognition, and cognition.
B) encoding, storage, and retrieval.
C) acoustic, semantic, and sensory.
D) sensation, perception, and cognition.

Question 13

When it comes to choosing between simultaneous and sequential lineups:

A) some research shows an advantage for simultaneous lineups while other research shows an advantage for sequential ones.
B) the biggest level of difficulty is to pass legislation that would mandate changes in the lineup procedures.
C) prosecutors' misunderstanding of what research studies mean for their practices makes it close to impossible to change the procedures.
D) sequential lineups are favored by the prosecution side while simultaneous lineups are favored by the defense side.

Question 14

An eyewitness identifies John as the perpetrator of a crime that he did not commit. The eyewitness saw John's picture in a local advertisement and has mistakenly replaced the face of the actual perpetrator with John's face when recalling the crime. This demonstrates a phenomenon called:

A) unconscious transference.
B) retrieval inhibition.
C) cognitive dissonance.
D) the filler effect.

Question 15

The memory process is often described as having the following components:

A) encoding, storage, retrieval.
B) storage, retrieval, identification.
C) retrieval, storage, processing.
D) processing, encoding, storage.

Question 16

Tonya is an eyewitness during a trial. She testifies that she is very confident about what she saw when the crime was in progress. Her high level of confidence:

A) is unlikely to have an effect on jurors' opinions of the case.
B) is strongly correlated with the accuracy of her identification.
C) likely was lower during her initial questioning by police.
D) likely reflects her talent in putting on an act.

Question 17

Which one of the following Manson criteria can be highly misleading, according to research findings?

A) The witness's level of attention.
B) The amount of time between witnessing the crime and making the identification.
C) The degree of certainty asserted by the witness.
D) The witness's opportunity to view the perpetrator.

Question 18

Eyewitnesses depend on _____ to identify or describe a suspect.

A) scientists
B) intuition
C) memory
D) evidence

Question 19

According to research studies on eyewitness identification that are described in the text, which one of the following statements is INCORRECT?

A) People tend to overestimate the duration of a brief event.
B) It is more difficult for people to recognize the faces of others outside of their racial group.
C) High-stress conditions usually increase the rate of correct identifications.
D) Seeing the perpetrator hold a weapon impairs the witnesses' ability to recognize the assailant.

Question 20

Which of the following is NOT an estimator variable in eyewitness identification?

A) The mental health status of the witness.
B) How carefully an eyewitness observes the crime.
C) The type of questions asked by police about the crime.
D) The race of the victim.

Question 21

The following are some troubling issues with applying the Manson criteria when evaluating the accuracy of an eyewitness's identification. Which one of these statements is INCORRECT?

A) Most of these criteria are difficult to apply to actual crimes.
B) The eyewitness's degree of certainty expressed during the trial can be very misleading.
C) Three of the five Manson criteria (certainty, view, and attention) must rely on the self-reports of eyewitnesses.
D) Two of the five Manson criteria (view and attention) rely on survey measures developed by psychologists.

Question 22

According to the text, psychological studies find that eyewitness testimony:

A) is more reliable than is supposed by most people.
B) is more fallible than is commonly believed.
C) only influences jurors if preceded by expert testimony.
D) loses its compelling properties as more time passes between the crime and the trial.

Question 23

In addition to issues with memory in general, other things can introduce biases. Studies show that interference can take place during the process of identification of a suspect: Witnesses may feel more certain about their memory of an event or perpetrator as a result of _____ and _____.

A) stress; concern
B) biased questioning; stress
C) lineup procedures; confusion
D) biased questioning; lineup procedures

Question 24

Cross-racial identifications are generally _____ accurate _____ same-race identifications.

A) somewhat more; than
B) less; than
C) as; as
D) a great deal more; than

Question 25

The Manson criteria, emphasized by courts, consist of five factors to be taken into account when evaluating eyewitness identification accuracy. Which criterion is the most problematic one, according to the text?

A) The level of attention the witness was paying to what was going on.
B) The witness's degree of certainty about his or her memory of the event.
C) The amount of time between the crime and the identification event.
D) The accuracy of the witness's previous descriptions of the event or perpetrator.

Question 26

The fact that eyewitness testimony is so powerful in influencing jurors is only a problem if:

A) the witness is mistaken.
B) the jurors return a guilty verdict.
C) the case never goes to trial.
D) expert testimony is given.

Question 27

_____ is the part of the memory process that involves accessing and pulling out stored information at a later time.

A) Storage
B) Retrieval
C) Encoding
D) Priming

Question 28

Wrongful convictions have been shown to result from faulty eyewitness testimony _____ from any other type of evidence.

A) less frequently than
B) as often as
C) more often than
D) None of the above is correct.

Question 29

Peter was able to pick a guy who looked like his assailant out of a _____. When he was told that this was very helpful to the detectives working the case, Peter felt _____ certain that he remembered his attacker well.

A) lineup; even more
B) lineup; somewhat less
C) cell; even more
D) car; somewhat less

Question 30

Eyewitness testimony is very important in court trials. In fact, it is often crucial because it is likely to be:

A) the most compelling evidence presented in court.
B) more fallible than is commonly believed.
C) only reliable if preceded by expert testimony.
D) more uncertain in court than in police settings.

Question 31

Sabrina works as a bank teller. When one of the customers pointed a gun at her and demanded that she give him the key to the safe deposit box, she was so frightened that she could barely move. After the customer got the key, Sabrina was told to raise her hands and stand with her face into the wall for the rest of the time the bank robbery was unfolding. About 30 seconds passed between the time when Sabrina first saw the customer and the time she was told to turn to the wall with her hands raised. When recalling the event, she is likely to estimate that 30-second time period to have lasted about:

A) 15 seconds.
B) 30 seconds.
C) 1 minute.
D) 2 minutes.

Question 32

Even though the Supreme Court _____ the Manson framework, several states continue to _____ criteria established in Manson.

A) tried to amend; apply the scientifically proven
B) refused to amend; reexamine the outdated
C) amended; refuse to apply the
D) amended; apply the outdated

Question 33

Studies have analyzed wrongful conviction cases that were later overturned because DNA testing proved the wrongfully convicted person innocent. Of the following major causes of wrongful convictions, which one is found to be the most prevalent?

A) False confessions.
B) Forensic science problems.
C) Eyewitness misidentification.
D) Faulty informant (or jailhouse "snitch") testimony.

Question 34

Individuals often _____ the duration of a brief event, especially if it is a(n) _____ event.

A) underestimate; stressful
B) overestimate; stressful
C) underestimate; interesting
D) overestimate; interesting

Question 35

_____ is the term used to describe the biochemical representation of our experiences within the brain, which are known to deteriorate over time.

A) Heuristics
B) Bottom-up processing
C) Top-down processing
D) Memory trace

Question 36

In the reconstruction of memory, it is not uncommon to find that distortions may take place at any stage. The following statement about this process is INCORRECT:

A) With encoding, we may select only some aspects of the event when forming the memory.
B) Memory traces deteriorate with time passing.
C) Various sounds encoded during memory formation are the easiest part to retrieve.
D) Distortions of memories can occur during the process of retrieval.

Question 37

The tendency of people to be better able to recognize faces of those within their own racial group than those outside their racial group is referred to as the _____ effect.

A) cross-race
B) meta-analysis
C) same-race
D) prejudice

Question 38

According to research by Penrod & Cutler (1999), estimates of time during the course of a stressful event are _____ the actual length of the event.

A) about half of
B) almost twice
C) three to four times
D) over ten times

Question 39

The maintenance of information over time within the brain is referred to as:

A) storage.
B) retrieval.
C) encoding.
D) processing.

Question 40

Lapses of attention are most likely to affect which stage of the process of memory work?

A) Storage
B) Retrieval
C) Encoding
D) Priming

Question 41

Children's memories are likely to be impacted by all of the following, EXCEPT:

A) their desire to please the adults.
B) a stress-inducing interview style.
C) their lack of understanding of the court proceedings.
D) a situation of being presented with a culprit-absent lineup.

Question 42

According to a study completed by Morgan and his colleagues (2004), stress appears to have an effect on eyewitness identification. Based on the study results, the rate of correct identification was _____ in low-stress conditions.

A) higher
B) lower
C) similar
D) None of the above is correct about eyewitness identification.

Question 43

Scripts help us to _____ but can also _____ eyewitness memories.

A) change our expectations about the world; enhance
B) change our expectations about the world; get mixed in with
C) process information more efficiently; enhance
D) process information more efficiently; get mixed in with

Question 44

Most people believe that high stress _____ but empirical studies find that stress has _____ effect on memory.

A) aids memorization; almost no
B) aids memorization; a detrimental
C) hurts memorization; almost no
D) hurts memorization; a boosting

Question 45

The reassignment of a face that is familiar from another context to the scene of a crime is referred to as:

A) retrieval inhibition.
B) preexisting scripts.
C) own-race bias.
D) unconscious transference.

Question 46

When presented with a lineup, Morgan was able to identify the perpetrator of the robbery she had witnessed. She was not sure of her identification at first, but when the investigator mentioned that another witness also chose the same suspect, her confidence that she remembered the perpetrator well grew close to 100%. This is an illustration of:

A) preexisting scripts.
B) unconscious transference.
C) post-identification feedback effect.
D) bias-reducing instructions.

Question 47

According to the text, what we generally see and remember is impacted by what we expect to see. This tendency to maintain firmly held beliefs about a sequence of expected behaviors is referred to as:

A) retrieval inhibition.
B) preexisting scripts.
C) meta-analysis.
D) unconscious transference.

Question 48

The weapon focus effect means that the eyewitnesses' ability to remember the attacker is _____ if the attacker is holding a _____.

A) improved; gun or knife
B) improved; gun rather than a knife
C) impaired; gun or knife
D) impaired; gun rather than a knife

Question 49

Cross-race effect has been shown to maintain consistent strength:

A) regardless of exposure to races other than one's own.
B) despite special training intended to reduce it.
C) for people of different ages.
D) for those from bi-racial families.

Question 50

When doing research on eyewitness memory, social scientists often look at many factors. Factors that are outside the control of the legal system are referred to as:

A) system variables.
B) dependent variables.
C) independent variables.
D) estimator variables.

Question 51

Ashley stopped at the bank to deposit her paycheck, and then stopped at a nearby gas station to pick up a few grocery items. While she was at the gas station, a robber entered with his gun drawn and ordered everybody, including Ashley, to raise their hands and move to the back wall. After the robber gathered all the money from the cash register and collected the customers' wallets, he left. Later, at the police station, Ashley has mistakenly given a description of a bank teller's face when asked to describe the robber. This phenomenon is known as:

A) retrieval inhibition.
B) retrieval disinhibition.
C) unconscious transference.
D) unconscious scripts.

Question 52

Bias-reducing instructions are used to assist eyewitnesses to be accurate in their identification of a suspect. An example of such instructions, as noted in the text, is telling the eyewitness that _____ in the lineup or photo spread.

A) the true criminal might not be
B) the true criminal is likely to be
C) the entire case rests on the selection of someone
D) the detective has a strong feeling that one of the suspects might be

Question 53

According to the text, the cross-race effect is present in babies as young as _____ old, and _____ from childhood to adulthood.

A) 9 months; increases dramatically
B) 9 months; is consistently strong
C) 18 months; gets somewhat reduced
D) 18 months; increases dramatically

Question 54

Certain ways of initial questioning of the eyewitness can significantly alter his recall of the crime scene. Retrieval inhibition occurs when an individual:

A) selectively recalls some aspects of a situation while other aspects get ignored.
B) initially forgets some aspects of a crime scene but then recalls them days or weeks later.
C) selectively recalls some aspects of a situation but cannot clearly express them in words.
D) generally inhibits verbal information while accurately retrieving visual memories.

Question 55

The process of having an eyewitness look at one person or photograph at a time is referred to as a _____ lineup.

A) simultaneous
B) coinciding
C) sequential
D) consequential

Question 56

Oftentimes, the post-indentification boost in an eyewitness's confidence level about his or her testimony can be explained by cognitive dissonance, which is a(n):

A) uncomfortable feeling when someone has conflicting thoughts.
B) tendency to maintain a steady course of action.
C) tendency to become more certain of your opinion over time.
D) unconscious pleasant feeling when someone is positive of being right.

Question 57

A requirement to create an unbiased lineup seems obvious. However, there were many cases of lineups with the fillers not closely resembling the main suspect. Research found that such biased lineups lead to:

A) the admission of guilt by the suspect.
B) higher rates of innocent suspect identifications.
C) lower rates of correlation with photo spread identification.
D) bystanders intervening in shaming the unfair procedure.

Question 58

Research is an important part of understanding how eyewitness accounts are derived. As such, a range of factors are often considered. Such factors as the procedures for constructing lineups and questioning witnesses are called:

A) system variables.
B) dependent variables.
C) independent variables.
D) estimator variables.

Question 59

Research on improving eyewitness identification procedures is especially important in light of considerable human costs to false identification. Which one of the following is NOT among these costs?

A) Lives of the wrongly identified innocent people could be shattered.
B) Eyewitnesses who later discover their mistakes must live with a sense of guilt.
C) The misidentified suspects are forced to falsely confess.
D) The real criminals remain free to commit more crimes.

Question 60

When an eyewitness is a child, it is likely that the accuracy of information the child can provide is _____ that provided by an adult.

A) higher compared to
B) lower compared to
C) very similar to
D) more likely to be impacted by retrieval inhibition than

Question 61

How does human memory operate? How is it different from a video recording? If people are sure they remember the situation well, does it mean their memories are more accurate than memories of those who are not as sure?

Question 62

Hypnosis was once considered a promising technique for refreshing witnesses' memories. However, it turned out to have some serious downsides. These downsides include the following, EXCEPT:

A) Hypnosis can elicit false memories.
B) Hypnosis can boost the witness's confidence in a misconstrued memory.
C) The effects of suggestive questioning can be amplified by hypnosis.
D) The most vivid memories can be suppressed by hypnosis.

Question 63

Describe three best-practice recommendations regarding improving eyewitness accuracy.

Question 64

The benefit of the cognitive interview is that:

A) the eyewitness's memories become fragmented and well-defined.
B) it requires the right space prepared for the cognitive interview.
C) it helps the witness relax and mentally reinstate the details of the crime event.
D) it arouses the eyewitness's senses to help restart the memory retrieval process.

Question 65

The biggest problem regarding the use of the cognitive interview with eyewitnesses is the difficulties that police have with:

A) adopting the interviewing style that is so different from their usual one.
B) creating the right space required for the cognitive interview.
C) preventing the interviewee from slipping into a hypnotic state.
D) avoiding the creation of erroneous memories during the cognitive interview.

Question 66

Describe the post-identification feedback effect and give an example. What is the role of cognitive dissonance in this process?