Deck 6: Police Discretion and Dilemmas

Question 1

In Barker and Carter's typology of lies, accepted lies are:

A)those that occur in court, for the purpose of securing a conviction.
B)used to control a violent or dangerous person.
C)those used during undercover investigations.
D)never acceptable in police work.

Answer 1

C

Question 2

Which of the following statements is true?

A)One of the biggest problems with informants is that their reliability is often highly questionable.
B)In most cases, officers have manufactured informants.
C)Generally speaking, informants tend to be cost-prohibitive. ​
D)"Confidential informants" are usually more trustworthy than witnesses.

Answer 2

A

Question 3

In order to determine whether entrapment has occurred, the_____________ approach examines the government's participation and whether it has exceeded accepted legal standards.

A)secondary
B)objective
C)subjective
D)primary

Answer 3

B

Question 4

In May 2010, Arizona passed a controversial law requiring police officers in the state to:

A)ask for proof of citizenship or residency from everyone they stopped.
B)ask for proof of citizenship or residency from all motorists.
C)ask for proof of citizenship or residency if there was reasonable suspicion that the person was an illegal immigrant.
D)ask for proof of citizenship or residency if the person looked Hispanic.

Question 5

Which of the following statements is false?

A)Most studies indicate that blacks express more distrust of police than whites or Hispanics. ​
B)Blacks are more likely than Hispanics to believe police will use excessive force.
C)More blacks report disrespectful language or swearing by police officers.
D)Hispanics are less likely than blacks to report feeling that the police would treat them fairly.

Question 6

In Barker and Carter's proposed typology of lies, those that are considered "necessary evils" are known as:

A)deviant lies. ​
B)tolerated lies.
C)encouraged lies.
D)placebo lies.

Question 7

Lies that are used to control a suspect or to avoid the use of force are called:

A)deviant lies.
B)blue lies.
C)tolerated lies.
D)accepted lies.

Question 8

In confrontations between police and citizens, research has shown that factors leading to disrespectful interaction include each of the following except:

A)time of day.
B)presence of intoxicants.
C)number of bystanders.
D)being in a disadvantaged neighborhood.

Question 9

The          approach looks at the defendant's background, character, and predisposition  toward crime to determine if entrapment occurred.

A)secondary
B)objective
C)subjective
D)primary

Question 10

The term " entrapment " refers to an incident wherein an otherwise innocent person commits an illegal act because:

A)of police encouragement or enticement.
B)they were told by police that it was not against the law.
C)he or she was following the lead of an informant.
D)they were unable to leave the location.

Question 11

In Barker and Carter's proposed typology of lies, " deviant lies " are:

A)those that are "necessary evils." ​
B)used to control the person.
C)those used during undercover investigations.
D)those used in the courtroom to make a case or cover up a wrongdoing.

Question 12

In the case of United States v. Russell (1972), which approach to determine entrapment did the U.S. Supreme Court endorse?

A)the objective approach
B)the subjective approach
C)the combined approach
D)the U.S. Supreme Court refused to endorse any particular method

Question 13

The strongest ethical argument against undercover officers having intimate relationships with suspects comes from:

A)utilitarianism.
B)ethical formalism.
C)ethics of care.
D)religion.

Question 14

According to Barker and Carter, accepted lies must meet all of the following standards except:

A)they must be in furtherance of a legitimate organizational purpose. ​
B)there must be a clear relationship between the need to deceive and the accomplishment of an organizational purpose.
C)the nature of the deception must be such that it will better serve the public interest than the truth.
D)those involved in the lie must reveal the truth as soon as it becomes safe to do so.

Question 15

According to South, some of the ethical problems with informants include all of the following except:

A)officers becoming personally involved with informants.
B)overestimating the veracity of the informant's information.
C)using coercion and intimidation to force the informant to cooperate.
D)falsely complimenting the informant to make him feel essential to the operation.

Question 16

Which ethical system is most likely to support the harassing and inconveniencing of a racial minority group because it being done in the pursuit of a justifiable goal such as preventing terrorism? 

A)an ethical formalist system
B)a utilitarian system ​
C)a relativist system
D)a rational system

Question 17

Civilians who are used to obtain facts and intelligence about criminal activity and/or participate in it so evidence can be obtained for an arrest are called:

A)snitch. ​
B)informants.
C)tattlers.
D)witness. ​

Question 18

There are two approaches used to determine whether entrapment has occurred:

A)the primary and the secondary approaches
B)the objective and the subjective approaches
C)the before- and the after-the-fact approaches
D)whether entrapment has occurred cannot be determined

Question 19

According to Klockars, lying to a mentally ill person by telling him/her that the police will take care of laser beams from Mars is an example of:

A)blue lies.
B)deviant lies.
C)police placebos.
D)tolerated lies.

Question 20

Which of the following is not included in Barker and Carter's typology of lies?

A)accepted lies
B)deviant lies
C)normative lies
D)tolerated lies

Question 21

A bomb exploded at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, killing one and wounding more than 100. The FBI conducted an investigation and within days, Richard Jewell was identified as a suspect. After several months, the Justice Department announced that Jewell was no longer a suspect. Jewell was publicly scorned, and followed incessantly by the media and law enforcement for the three months that he was believed to be the bomber. Evidence in the case was interpreted in such a way as to support the idea that Jewell was guilty. For example, Jewell was known to have seen the bag containing the bomb before it detonated, and moved people from the area. This life-saving act was seen as evidence that he was the bomber, because the investigators believed that he had planted the bomb in order to be able to be seen as a hero for saving people.
According to the author, the tendency to ignore contrary evidence or overstate existing evidence when investigators believe they have identified the guilty party is a practice of:

A)all investigators.
B)inexperienced investigators.
C)ethical formalists.
D)utilitarian ends-oriented investigators.

Question 22

According to research provided in the text, which of the following is not a factor associated with the use of force by police?

A)time of year (season)
B)suspect's mental illness
C)suspect's gang membership
D)presence of onlookers

Question 23

A bomb exploded at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, killing one and wounding more than 100. The FBI conducted an investigation and within days, Richard Jewell was identified as a suspect. After several months, the Justice Department announced that Jewell was no longer a suspect. Jewell was publicly scorned, and followed incessantly by the media and law enforcement for the three months that he was believed to be the bomber. Evidence in the case was interpreted in such a way as to support the idea that Jewell was guilty. For example, Jewell was known to have seen the bag containing the bomb before it detonated, and moved people from the area. This life-saving act was seen as evidence that he was the bomber, because the investigators believed that he had planted the bomb in order to be able to be seen as a hero for saving people.
In this case, the FBI was under intense scrutiny from the public, which demanded a resolution to the investigation. This public pressure may have led to the premature naming of a suspect. When investigators are committed to a conclusion, they may be tempted to engage in "          " corruption and alter evidence to ensure a conviction.

A)blue-curtain
B)reactive
C)pretext
D)noble-cause

Question 24

Which of the following statements about interrogations is true?

A)The "third degree" approach involves a sympathetic paternal figure to whom the defendant confides. ​
B)The "good cop/bad cop" approach is only used in the movies and on television.
C)The "third degree" is no longer officially allowed.
D)The father confessor approach typically involves physical force. ​

Question 25

The use of physical force to obtain a conviction became illegal with which Supreme Court case?

A)Diaz v. Texas
B)Bartley v. Montana
C)Brown v. Mississippi
D)Miranda v. Connecticut

Question 26

According to the text, the most common reasons for false convictions include all of the following except:

A)inaccurate reporting in the media.
B)false confessions. ​
C)inaccurate eyewitness identifications.
D)mishandled evidence.

Question 27

Midland County has become a major thoroughfare for distributors of crystal methamphetamine.  Sheriff Johnson has put together a profile of meth dealers and distributors, specifically identifying their tendency to travel by motorcycle or older-model van, and noting they often sport tattoos and facial hair. He has instructed his deputies to be on the lookout for people matching this profile.
When challenged, Sheriff Johnson explained that the goal of protecting society by interdicting illegal drugs outweighs the inconvenience suffered by innocent  people who may be stopped and harassed. This explanation represents which ethical system?

A)utilitarianism
B)universalism
C)ethics of care
D)ethical formalism

Question 28

Midland County has become a major thoroughfare for distributors of crystal methamphetamine.  Sheriff Johnson has put together a profile of meth dealers and distributors, specifically identifying their tendency to travel by motorcycle or older-model van, and noting they often sport tattoos and facial hair. He has instructed his deputies to be on the lookout for people matching this profile.
The Midland County Sheriff's practice of stopping motorists who meet the profile for a minor infraction, with the hope of catching some in possession of methamphetamine, is known as:

A)proactive investigation. ​
B)reactive investigation.
C)pretext stop.
D)Terry stop.

Question 29

Midland County has become a major thoroughfare for distributors of crystal methamphetamine.  Sheriff Johnson has put together a profile of meth dealers and distributors, specifically identifying their tendency to travel by motorcycle or older-model van, and noting they often sport tattoos and facial hair. He has instructed his deputies to be on the lookout for people matching this profile.
According to the text, while many people would oppose the use of profiling for the purpose of drug interdiction, they would support the same process if it were a response to               .

A)terrorism
B)organized crime
C)hate crimes
D)child pornography

Question 30

According to the objective approach, if the state provided an "essential element" that made the crime possible, or if there was extensive and coercive pressure on the defendant to engage in criminal actions, a court might rule that:

A)the defendant was guilty.
B)the case can move to the trail stage.
C)entrapment had occurred.
D)entrapment had not occurred.

Question 31

In terms of undercover operations, ethical formalism would most likely:

A)condemn undercover operations where innocent people are deceived because the actions could not be justified under the categorical imperative.
B)support undercover operations even if innocent people are deceived, as long as the greater good was being served.
C)support undercover operations under any circumstances.
D)allow undercover operations only if the general community approved the action ahead of time.

Question 32

Midland County has become a major thoroughfare for distributors of crystal methamphetamine.  Sheriff Johnson has put together a profile of meth dealers and distributors, specifically identifying their tendency to travel by motorcycle or older-model van, and noting they often sport tattoos and facial hair. He has instructed his deputies to be on the lookout for people matching this profile.
A citizen who objects to the plan points out that the sheriff might dismiss it as an " inconvenience " to innocent people but that he would probably not agree that he himself and members of his family should be subjected to such suspicion and treatment. This citizen is making the __________________ argument against the policy.

A)utilitarian
B)pretext ​
C)legalistic
D)universality

Question 33

Which one of the following is not a true statement about civil lawsuits?

A)The level of proof necessary to show legal liability is lower in a civil suit than in a criminal prosecution.
B)Civil suits are often settled by cities before they proceed to trial.
C)Civil suits cannot be used against police for disciplinary reasons unless accompanied by a criminal charge.
D)Civil suits are more likely to be successful than criminal prosecutions.

Question 34

Prior to the 2004 Republican convention in New York, undercover officers infiltrated activist groups that they believed might cause problems during the convention. Officers attended meetings, made friends, signed petitions, and then reported on the groups' activities to supervisors.
The operation described in this case can be described as a(n)         .

A)informal inquiry
B)proactive investigation
C)reactive investigation
D)pretext investigation

Question 35

Prior to the 2004 Republican convention in New York, undercover officers infiltrated activist groups that they believed might cause problems during the convention. Officers attended meetings, made friends, signed petitions, and then reported on the groups' activities to supervisors.
All of the following ethical systems would reject this plan, except:

A)utilitarianism.
B)ethical formalism.
C)religious ethics.
D)legalistic ethics.

Question 36

Prior to the 2004 Republican convention in New York, undercover officers infiltrated activist groups that they believed might cause problems during the convention. Officers attended meetings, made friends, signed petitions, and then reported on the groups' activities to supervisors.
In order to support such a plan from a utilitarian viewpoint, all of the following must be true, except:

A)the process of undercover intelligence gathering must be a plausible way to achieve the desired outcome.
B)there must be no better alternative to achieve the goal of collecting the intelligence.
C)the gathering of this intelligence must be more important to society than the privacy of the people in the targeted groups.
D)the general community must be consulted and indicate its approval.

Question 37

The continuum-of-force approach allows the officer to:

A)overwhelm the suspect with force to deter resistance.
B)employ increasing levels of force in direct response to escalating resistance of the suspect.
C)call for assistance from additional officers if a suspect is unruly.
D)remain at a safe distance from a violent suspect until backup arrives.

Question 38

The classic father confessor approach to interrogations involves:

A)physical force in the form of beatings to get a confession. ​
B)a sympathetic figure for the defendant to confide to.
C)one nice officer and a seemingly brutal, threatening officer. ​
D)one nice officer and a seemingly uncaring, withdrawn officer.

Question 39

A bomb exploded at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, killing one and wounding more than 100. The FBI conducted an investigation and within days, Richard Jewell was identified as a suspect. After several months, the Justice Department announced that Jewell was no longer a suspect. Jewell was publicly scorned, and followed incessantly by the media and law enforcement for the three months that he was believed to be the bomber. Evidence in the case was interpreted in such a way as to support the idea that Jewell was guilty. For example, Jewell was known to have seen the bag containing the bomb before it detonated, and moved people from the area. This life-saving act was seen as evidence that he was the bomber, because the investigators believed that he had planted the bomb in order to be able to be seen as a hero for saving people.
The operation described in this case can be described as a(n)         .

A)informal inquiry
B)proactive investigation
C)reactive investigation
D)pretext investigation

Question 40

Which of the following statements about use-of-force statistics is false ?

A)It is difficult to determine the true number of incidents of excessive force because they often do not find their way into official statistics.
B)Researchers use civil rights complaints to document use-of-force incidents.
C)Researchers use official documents, such as police incident reports, to help guide them.
D)The vast majority of people believe that excessive force is used fairly frequently.

Question 41

The fact that the suspect had a prior history of committing the same crime would be considered significant in the subjective test for entrapment.

Question 42

Research indicates that use-of-force incidents are evenly distributed among all patrol officers.

Question 43

Schoeman, in criticizing the exploitation of personal relationships in undercover operations, argues from a utilitarian perspective.

Question 44

Telling a complainant that a tinfoil helmet will stop "gamma rays" from "messing up" his brain is an example of a  police placebo lie.

Question 45

The U.S. Supreme Court has defined legal force as force that is objectively reasonable.

Question 46

Most ethical dilemmas that police officers face derive from their powers of discretion.

Question 47

____________ are civilians who are used to obtain information about criminal activity and/or participate in it so that evidence can be obtained during an investigation.

Question 48

The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA)developed standards that guide the use of informants.

Question 49

____________, as defined by Klockars, are lies that are told to make a job easier or to control a person.

Question 50

Research indicates that police officers who use greater than average amounts of force often exhibit a lack of empathy and antisocial tendencies.

Question 51

Entrapment occurs when an otherwise innocent person commits an illegal act because of police encouragement or enticement.

Question 52

Police are required to divulge the name of the informant on affidavits for search warrants unless there is evidence  that revealing the informant's identity would be dangerous.

Question 53

A "CED" is a formal complaint procedure resulting from an incident of excessive force.

Question 54

In asset forfeiture cases, most property is seized through civil asset forfeiture actions that require less due process than criminal procedures.

Question 55

Characteristics such as the suspect's demeanor, possession of a weapon, intoxication, and emotionality seem to be correlated with ___________________ .

Question 56

The term _____________ refers to a situation where an otherwise innocent person is enticed or encouraged by police to commit a crime.

Question 57

Klockars' concept of  _________________ refers to situations in which the police officer's lies are in the best  interest of those being lied to.

Question 58

According to research cited in the text, both black and white officers were significantly more likely to perceive black drivers as disrespectful, noncompliant, and/or resistant.

Question 59

Research conducted in 2014 shows a decrease in the percentage of blacks expressing "very little" confidence in their local police to treat blacks and whites equally, compared to five years earlier.

Question 60

Deontological ethics would focus on the duty of the officer when determining whether physical coercion or deception is ethically justified.

Question 61

Compare and contrast the "third degree," the father confessor," and the "good cop/bad cop" approaches to  police investigations.

Question 62

List and discuss the types of police lies described by Klockars. Give examples.

Question 63

List and discuss the psychological traits associated with officers that are likely to use excessive force.

Question 64

List and discuss the three standards that accepted lies must meet.

Question 65

Research shows that the frequency of use-of-force events varies by region, with the highest rate of occurrence in the _______________.

Question 66

In ____________ police investigations, police officers initiate investigations rather than simply respond to crimes.

Question 67

A legal killing, most often performed by a law enforcement officer, is known as a(n)____________ homicide.

Question 68

Evidence indicates that ________________  and skill are more effective than persuasion in getting suspects to confess.

Question 69

List and describe the ethical problems of using informants summarized by South.

Question 70

Define and describe what is meant by " reactive investigations. " Give an example.

Question 71

According to the text, juveniles are especially prone to __________________  manipulation.

Question 72

"Reasonable" force is defined as that which is proportional to _______________ .

Question 73

was the landmark Supreme Court case that resulted in the requirement of prosecutors to disclose potentially exculpatory information to the defense.

Question 74

List and discuss the situational elements that influence an officer's likelihood to use excessive force .

Question 75

The ___________ approach allows proportional force to the suspect's resistance, with increasing levels  of force by the officer in direct response to escalating resistance of the suspect.

Question 76

Explain the constitutional issues associated with ethnic or racial profiling.

Question 77

A ____________ refers to the practice of police officers using some minor traffic offense as a justification to stop the individual and, in the course of the traffic stop, look for evidence of wrongdoing.

Question 78

List and discuss the two approaches used to determine whether entrapment has occurred. Give an example of each.

Question 79

Explain some of the reasons why an innocent suspect might confess to a crime.

Question 80

When forensics labs "make up" scientific results without actually running any tests, it is referred to as__________ .