Deck 5: Attitude Change

Question 1

According to the theory of cognitive dissonance:

A) people with high intelligence are frequently out of harmony with their surroundings
B) people have a high tolerance for holding psychologically inconsistent views
C) people try to increase dissonance by changing conflicting cognitions
D) the arousal produced by dissonance is conducive to learning
E) people are motivated to be consistent in their actions

Answer 1

E

Question 2

The level of discomfort in cognitive dissonance is determined by:

A) the ratio of the number of dissonant cognitions to the number of consonant cognitions
B) the relative importance of the various elements to the person involved
C) the ratio of the number of dissonant cognitions to the number of irrelevant cognitions
D) b and c
E) a and b

Answer 2

E

Question 3

Which of the following is a determinant of the overall level of cognitive dissonance?

A) the number of consonant elements
B) the number of dissonant elements
C) the number of irrelevant elements
D) the ratio of dissonant to consonant elements
E) all of the above

Answer 3

D

Question 4

In which of the following situations would cognitive dissonance theory predict that the person is experiencing dissonance?

A) Terry has just been accepted into medical school
B) just as Andrew finished roofing his new house, the hurricane blew it off
C) Johan must soon decide which brand of computer to buy
D) Maria fell and twisted her ankle at a baseball game she was forced to participate in
E) Eric just made a decision to attend one of the two universities he likes after receiving equally attractive scholarship offers from both

Question 5

That attitude changes to justify a behaviour is a focus of __________ theory.

A) balance
B) psychoanalytic
C) learning
D) dissonance
E) attribution

Question 6

What determines the magnitude of cognitive dissonance?

A) the number of dissonant elements
B) the ratio of dissonant to consonant elements
C) the subjective importance of the dissonant and consonant elements
D) both a and c
E) both b and c

Question 7

Pete is aware of the health risks associated with smoking. However, he continues to smoke because he has concluded that smoking helps him to avoid overeating. His reasoning in this situation is an example of:

A) pre-decision dissonance
B) reducing dissonance
C) increasing dissonance
D) denial
E) overvaluing a decision

Question 8

In order to reduce dissonance once it has been aroused:

A) the person may say that the two cognitions are not relevant to each other
B) the person may modify a cognition so that it becomes consonant with other cognitions
C) the person may downgrade the importance of the dissonant cognition
D) both b and c
E) all of the above

Question 9

Luke is having a problem deciding whether to attend a university where he has been awarded a scholarship or play major league baseball where he has been given an attractive offer. This has created some discomfort for him. Luke is:

A) in a serious conflict
B) in a dissonant state
C) in a trap
D) experiencing pre-decision cognitive dissonance
E) in a regret phase

Question 10

People reminded of their wedding vows tend to be less receptive to the possibility of divorce. What we have here is a clear case of:

A) central route persuasion
B) peripheral route persuasion
C) conformity
D) cognitive dissonance following attitude-discrepant behaviour
E) post-decision dissonance

Question 11

Having bought a microwave oven instead of a video recorder, Michael is now undervaluing the choice of the microwave. This is known as:

A) attempts to reduce the dissonance
B) post-decision cognitive dissonance
C) the regret phase of post-decision dissonance
D) discrepant behaviour
E) the inconsistency principle

Question 12

What determines the magnitude of post-decision dissonance?

A) the extent to which we undervalue the choice we have made
B) the importance of the decision
C) the extent to which the choices were equally desirable
D) both b and c
E) both a and b

Question 13

Elizabeth had to choose whether to attend graduate school in another town at a small university where she has been awarded a scholarship or at the large university where she and her boyfriend are enrolled as undergraduates. She has chosen the university offering the scholarship. According to the textbook, after making this choice Elizabeth may:

A) find the chosen university more attractive
B) feel unusually critical towards the university she is currently attending
C) undervalue her choice and find the rejected alternative more attractive
D) all of the above
E) a and b

Question 14

In the study involving betters at a racetrack, it was found that:

A) those who were interviewed before they placed their bets showed a higher confidence that their horse would win
B) those who were interviewed after they placed their bets showed a higher confidence that their horse would win
C) those who were interviewed after they placed their bets showed a lower confidence that their horse would win
D) both groups showed an equally high confidence that their horse would win
E) both groups showed an equally low confidence that their horse would win

Question 15

According to the text, we are least likely to experience dissonance if we:

A) were compelled to make a particular decision
B) are committed to the decision
C) have made a difficult decision
D) have been paid a small sum of money for telling a lie
E) have harmed a friend

Question 16

The finding that voters who had just cast their ballots were more confident that their candidate would win an election than voters just entering the polling station illustrates the effects of:

A) post-decision dissonance
B) selective information seeking
C) a regret phase
D) insufficient justification
E) counter-attitudinal behaviour

Question 17

In the study by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) in which subjects were asked to explain that a boring task was interesting, which participants later said that they enjoyed the task anyway?

A) control group
B) all experimental participants
C) participants in the $20 condition (high reward)
D) both experimental and control participants
E) participants in the $1 condition (low reward)

Question 18

Amit has just bought a Porsche. When he told his friend Tanya about buying this car, she told Amit that she knew someone who had a lot of mechanical trouble with a Porsche. According to your textbook, which of the following strategies is Amit likely to use?

A) misperceive the information
B) discredit Tanya
C) discount the information
D) change his attitude about his new car
E) all of the above

Question 19

In order to reduce dissonance after buying a particular brand of car, you seek out people that agree with your decision, and try to persuade some friends, who are yet to make up their minds, to buy the same brand. This is called:

A) discrepant behaviour
B) selective exposure to information
C) social support
D) the consistency principle
E) downgrading the importance of consonant information

Question 20

In the field study in which members of a cult were expecting to be taken on a spaceship to a distant planet, it was found that when they realized that neither the flood nor the rescuers were forthcoming, they proselytized actively. This way of reducing dissonance is known as:

A) social support
B) insufficient justification
C) counter-attitudinal behaviour
D) selective exposure to information
E) post-decision regret

Question 21

David continuously talks of hating mashed potatoes, but ends up eating them each time without much discomfort. This is an example of:

A) insufficient justification
B) counter-attitudinal behaviour
C) incentive theory
D) social support
E) opinion molecule

Question 22

In the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) experiment on turning knobs and telling the next subject that it was interesting, the researchers explained that the obtained results were due to:

A) post-decision regret
B) counter-attitudinal behaviour with justification
C) counter-attitudinal behaviour with insufficient external justification
D) counter-attitudinal behaviour with moderate threat
E) conflict before a decision

Question 23

Behaviour that is counter to attitudes is likely to arouse dissonance if:

A) a small reward is offered
B) a person is threatened with mild punishment
C) a person is threatened with severe punishment
D) a large reward is offered
E) both a and b

Question 24

While some experiments in which subjects wrote counter-attitudinal essays produced results contrary to those of Festinger and Carlsmith's original experiment, the key difference in these studies was:

A) insufficient justification
B) post-decision dissonance
C) private versus public commitment
D) conflict
E) severity of initiation

Question 25

Studies have shown that the insufficient justification dissonance phenomenon seems to work best only when:

A) the incentive is very high
B) the incentive is high and there is a public commitment
C) the incentive is low and there is a public commitment
D) the incentive is high and there is a private commitment
E) the incentive is low and there is a private commitment

Question 26

In an experiment, subjects who anonymously wrote a counter-attitudinal essay changed attitudes in the direction predicted by __________ theory.

A) cognitive dissonance
B) incentive
C) attribution
D) elaboration likelihood
E) none of the above

Question 27

In the 'forbidden toy' experiment, children ranked the forbidden toy lowest when they were subjected to:

A) no threats
B) mild threats
C) severe threats
D) both a and b
E) both a and c

Question 28

In the 'forbidden toy' experiment, children ranked the forbidden toy higher when they were subjected to:

A) no threats
B) severe threats
C) mild threats
D) both a and b
E) both b and c

Question 29

Subjects who had to make a difficult choice subsequently showed a greater reduction in their pulse rates than those who had to make an easy decision. This shows the role of __________ in cognitive dissonance.

A) blood pressure
B) incentive
C) threat
D) arousal
E) both b and c

Question 30

Research on the effect of threat in 'forbidden toy' experiments shows that:

A) there is a short-term increase in attractiveness of the toy as a result of severe threat
B) there is a short-term increase in attractiveness of the toy as a result of mild threat
C) there is a lasting decrease in attractiveness of the toy as a result of mild threat
D) there is a lasting decrease in the toy's attractiveness as a result of severe threat
E) none of the above

Question 31

What is meant by the term 'opinion molecule'?

A) our thinking is inconsistent with our actions most of the time
B) we have many inconsistencies but they are isolated
C) much of our thinking consists of a belief, an attitude and social support all in one
D) those who are most dissonant in society isolate themselves from groups
E) we isolate each of our cognitions and examine those which are or are not consonant with one another.

Question 32

The theory which makes the same predictions about attitude change as dissonance theory but which provides a different explanation is:

A) attribution
B) learning
C) consistency
D) self-justification
E) balance

Question 33

Which theory assumes that arousal occurs for attitude-discrepant behaviours?

A) self-perception
B) incentive
C) learning
D) dissonance
E) self-justification

Question 34

Some theorists argue that the dissonance effect caused by smoking occurs when the act is discrepant with:

A) the self-concept
B) knowledge
C) social support
D) consequences
E) incentive

Question 35

The view that dissonance is not just due to inconsistency between an individual's behaviour and attitudes, but rather inconsistency about the individual's view of himself, is referred to as:

A) self-perception theory
B) self-presentation
C) self-justification
D) self-attribution
E) selectivity in information processing

Question 36

Results of the study in which subjects drank alcohol, coffee, or water after writing a counter-attitudinal essay, suggest that:

A) increased arousal produced less attitude change
B) caffeine produced less attitude change than alcohol
C) reduced arousal produced less attitude change
D) alcohol produced more attitude change than water
E) arousal is not a cause of attitude change

Question 37

Which of the following views suggests that people express attitudes in line with their behaviour in order to avoid looking foolishly inconsistent?

A) cognitive dissonance
B) self-justification
C) self-perception
D) learning theory
E) consistency theory

Question 38

In the experiment in which subjects drank alcohol, coffee or water after writing a counter-attitudinal essay, which group showed less attitude change?

A) the group that drank water
B) the group that drank coffee
C) the group that drank alcohol
D) there was equal amount of change across the groups
E) there was no attitude change

Question 39

Results from the experiment in which subjects drank alcohol, coffee or water after writing a counter-attitudinal essay suggest that:

A) if you want to change people's attitudes, give them alcohol
B) cognitive dissonance is not a factor in attitude change
C) cognitive dissonance is an intellectual awareness of inconsistency
D) the state of cognitive dissonance which leads to attitude change is a state of arousal
E) self-perception theory is better than cognitive dissonance in accounting for attitude change

Question 40

Under what circumstances is dissonance likely to occur?

A) when behaviour results in negative consequences
B) when behaviour does not correspond to beliefs
C) when someone makes us perform
D) when the behaviour performed is a rare one
E) both a and b

Question 41

The results of the study by Rodrigues (1983) in which ego enhancement was induced by telling subjects psychological tests administered earlier showed them to be mature and well-adjusted individuals suggest that:

A) much of cognitive dissonance is not tied to self-justification
B) self-concept plays a central role in cognitive dissonance
C) much of our thinking consists of isolated 'opinion molecules'
D) the state of dissonance is simply an intellectual awareness of inconsistency
E) the dissonant effect can be accounted for by the incentive theory

Question 42

Which of the following is not part of Cooper and Fazio's revised model of when cognitive dissonance occurs?

A) attitude-discrepant behaviour has significant consequences
B) person feels responsible for these consequences
C) person experiences a state of arousal
D) person attributes arousal to own behaviour
E) person has sufficient external justification for own behaviour

Question 43

According to Cooper and Fazio's model, attitude-discrepant behaviour will not arouse dissonance unless:

A) it was not performed under free volition
B) there was sufficient external justification
C) the individual attributes arousal to his or her own behaviour
D) the individual feels the outcome was not caused by his or her own behaviour
E) none of the above

Question 44

Which of the following represents an internal process in attitude change?

A) cognitive dissonance
B) self-perception
C) self-justification
D) both a and b
E) all of the above

Question 45

Although Joshua feels that it is wrong to steal, he steals some candy bars. Subsequently, his attitude towards stealing is less negative. What theory best accounts for this change?

A) cognitive arousal theory
B) conditioning
C) self-justification/dissonance
D) learning theory
E) attribution theory

Question 46

Cooper and Fazio argue that dissonance occurs when:

A) behaviour is discrepant with attitude
B) behaviour has significant consequences
C) the individual feels personally responsible for the outcomes
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

Question 47

Which of the following has been resolved about cognitive dissonance?

A) whether or not it is a state of arousal
B) whether the magnitude of incentive influences dissonance
C) the role of choice or coercion
D) both a and b
E) all of the above

Question 48

According to Cooper and Fazio's revised model of cognitive dissonance, dissonance effects occur when:

A) we judge our actions to have had significant consequences
B) we attribute those consequences to ourselves
C) we attribute our feelings of discomfort to our reaction to what we have done
D) we cannot ignore our discomfort or attribute it to the weather
E) all of the above

Question 49

The target of an attitude change message is often called the:

A) message
B) audience
C) communicator
D) situation
E) none of the above

Question 50

According to the text, the source's credibility will only have impact if:

A) the audience is aware of it after the message is presented
B) the audience is aware of it midway through presentation
C) the audience is aware of it before the message is presented
D) there is no contradictory view from other sources
E) both a and b

Question 51

Which of the following would more likely be a credible source?

A) a Nobel Prize-winning scientist talking about peace
B) a salesperson who receives commission for sales
C) a physician talking about a headache remedy
D) both a and c
E) all of the above

Question 52

Which of the following is a determinant of acceptance of persuasion?

A) the source
B) the message
C) the audience
D) the channel
E) all of the above

Question 53

Source credibility has an impact on attitudes when:

A) the message is presented in oral but not written form
B) the audience is made aware of the credibility of the source before the message is delivered
C) the audience is made aware of the source credibility immediately after the message is delivered
D) the audience is unusually persuasible
E) the audience is unusually resistant to persuasion

Question 54

Which of the following would not likely be a credible source?

A) a salesperson who receives commission for sales
B) a physician talking about a headache remedy
C) a Nobel Prize-winning chemist talking about peace
D) all of the above would be credible
E) none of the above would be credible

Question 55

The credibility of a source depends on:

A) perceived expertise
B) high status
C) trustworthiness
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

Question 56

Which of the following is part of the Yale University Communication Research model of persuasion?

A) the audience
B) the target
C) the source
D) both a and c
E) all of the above

Question 57

Which of the following factors about the source of a message affect the acceptance of the message?

A) credibility, familiarity and repetition
B) familiarity, expertise and credibility
C) trustworthiness, expertise and repetition
D) expertise, trustworthiness and credibility
E) trustworthiness, credibility and familiarity

Question 58

Which of the following is not a source characteristic of persuasion?

A) primacy/recency effect
B) message characteristics
C) fear arousal
D) persuasibility
E) all of the above

Question 59

Credibility is an important concept in attitude change and is most related to:

A) the source
B) the message itself
C) the channel
D) the target
E) the setting

Question 60

The term 'sleeper effect' refers to:

A) a greater change in attitudes after the message is played while subjects sleep
B) that tendency to forget the message after some passage of time
C) situations where a person remembers the persuasive message but not the source of that message
D) situations where a person remembers the source of a message but not the message itself
E) the tendency to forget a persuasive message after going to sleep

Question 61

A popular explanation given to account for the 'sleeper effect' is:

A) the primacy effect
B) the discounting cue hypothesis
C) the recency effect
D) the REM sleep effect
E) the stage three sleep effect

Question 62

Studies have shown that it is best to present both sides of an argument if:

A) one is addressing an intelligent audience
B) the audience has a firm position on an issue
C) the audience will hear the other side from someone else
D) both a and c
E) all of the above

Question 63

If an earlier message has greater influence over acceptance than a later message, this can be described as:

A) a recency effect
B) primacy effect
C) the sleeper effect
D) inoculation effect
E) differential decay effect

Question 64

A two-sided message is usually more effective when:

A) the audience is initially favourable to the position
B) the audience is not well-educated or intelligent
C) the audience knows very little about the issue
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

Question 65

In the study by Janis and Feshbach (1953) to determine the effect of fear arousal on dental habits, it was found that:

A) the most threatening appeal had the most effect
B) the least threatening appeal had the most effect
C) the mildly threatening appeal had the most effect
D) there was no effect of fear arousal on dental habits
E) none of the above

Question 66

If you are asked to design an advertising campaign urging people to stop smoking, you will be most effective if your message should arouse:

A) a very low level of fear
B) no fear
C) a low to moderate level of fear
D) high level of fear
E) nicotine craving

Question 67

Using fear to get people to change their attitudes is most likely to be effective if:

A) the message is delivered to individuals personally
B) the target gets truly upset by the message
C) it contains examples of the danger on real people
D) they are accompanied by explicit recommendations about a course of action to avert the danger
E) the message is delivered to individuals in the presence of their families

Question 68

In a study of the cognitive and affective components of attitudes, Fabrigar and Petty (1999) found that:

A) subjects who had tasted a beverage were more positive on the affective measure
B) subjects who had been exposed to an informative message were more positive on the beliefs measure
C) whether subjects tasted a beverage or read information about it had no effect on later measures of beliefs and affect
D) whether subjects tasted a beverage or read information about it influenced later measures of belief but not affect
E) a and b above

Question 69

The view that suggests that people respond to fear-based messages in order to control/avoid the danger mentioned in the message, and to cope with the unpleasant feelings engendered by the message is known as:

A) the parallel response model
B) the protection motivation model
C) the inoculation procedure
D) the vulnerability model
E) the ego-defensive theory

Question 70

Which of the following is not a component of the protection motivation model of fear-based persuasion?

A) the person is vulnerable in some way
B) the person is capable of performing the recommended action
C) the recommended action will be effective
D) the threat is not severe
E) all of the above

Question 71

Studies investigating the role of self-esteem in attitude change have found that on the whole:

A) low self-esteem is associated with increased attitude change
B) high self-esteem is associated with increased attitude change
C) low self-esteem is associated with increased attitude change only if the message is complicated
D) high self-esteem is associated with increased attitude change only if the message is intricate and well-supported
E) high self-esteem is associated with increased attitude change only if the message is uncomplicated

Question 72

Which of the following does not reflect a good summary of research evidence on gender and attitude change?

A) females are more easily persuaded than males regardless of the harmony of the group
B) in majority of cases, males are more easily persuaded than females
C) females are socialized to be passive and yielding
D) females are generally more easily persuaded than males
E) all of the above

Question 73

If you want to persuade people about an issue that is complicated, you are likely to be most effective if you use:

A) the radio
B) a video with lots of distraction
C) live presentation on TV
D) a written communication
E) the channel does not really matter

Question 74

Which of the following statements is false?

A) complex messages are easier to understand when they are heard
B) both simple and complex messages are more effective when they are presented through a videotape
C) we are most influenced by messages delivered personally
D) when we process visual messages we pay a lot of attention to the source characteristics
E) none of the above is false

Question 75

If you want to persuade people about an issue which is quite complex, you are best advised to present your message:

A) on radio
B) on TV
C) as a video with lots of distraction
D) as a written communication
E) any of the above would work equally well

Question 76

Recent research evidence indicates that commitment to one's attitudes:

A) increases during middle and late adulthood
B) increases during middle adulthood and then declines in late adulthood
C) decreases during middle and late adulthood
D) remains the same as early adulthood during middle adulthood but increases during late adulthood
E) remains the same as early adulthood during both middle and late adulthood

Question 77

In Chaiken and Eagly's (1983) study in which the likability of a speaker was varied by having the speaker praise or derogate the students, faculty, and general quality of their institution, it was found that:

A) attitude change was greatest if the students liked the speaker, no matter what medium was used
B) attitude change was greatest when students liked the speaker if written communication was used
C) attitude change was greatest when students liked the speaker if the speaker was seen or heard
D) attitude change was greatest when students liked the speaker if the speaker was seen, but not heard
E) there were no differences in attitude change across the channels

Question 78

According to the text, 'hard sell' methods are more effective:

A) when the people are high self-monitors
B) when people are low self-monitors
C) when the product is of low quality
D) when the product has a masculine quality
E) when the people are of high intelligence

Question 79

In an experiment by Snyder and DeBono (1985), the 'hard sell' persuasive methods:

A) stressed the colour and texture of the product
B) stressed the quality and usefulness of the product
C) stressed the social acceptability of the product
D) stressed how others would judge you more favourably if you purchased the product
E) all of the above

Question 80

According to the text, 'soft sell' methods are more effective:

A) when the people are high self-monitors
B) when the people are low self-monitors
C) when the product is of high quality
D) a and c
E) b and c