Deck 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Question 1

Which is the chronological order of the characteristics of the first five sensorimotor substages as defined by Piaget?

A) Spontaneous movement  repeated action focused on own body and immediate environment  repeated action focused on objects  coordinated sequences of action  means-end analysis
B) Spontaneous movement  repeated action focused on own body and immediate environment  coordinated sequences of action  repeated action focused on objects  means-end analysis
C) Mental representation  spontaneous movement  repeated action focused on own body and immediate environment  coordinated sequences of action  repeated action focused on objects
D) Spontaneous movement  means-end analysis  coordinated sequences of action  repeated action focused on own body and immediate environment  repeated action focused on objects
E) Means-end analysis  spontaneous movement  repeated action focused on own body and immediate environment  coordinated sequences of action  repeated action focused on objects

Answer 1

A

Question 2

Which is an example of behavior demonstrating means-end analysis?

A) Baby Young-hee repeatedly hits her hands on the table to make noise.
B) Baby Derell pushes aside a pillow to get to his favorite toy.
C) Baby Isabella attempts to grasp a dangling toy.
D) Baby Gabriella repeatedly attempts to stand up.
E) Baby Arun attempts to imitate sounds made by his caregiver.

Answer 2

B

Question 3

You observe 6-month-old Renata repeatedly hitting her hand on the floor and making a sound. What substage, according to Piaget, are you likely observing?

A) Mental representation
B) Coordination of secondary circular reactions
C) Tertiary circular reactions
D) Secondary circular reactions
E) Primary circular reactions

Answer 3

D

Question 4

Baby Andreas watches his father shave and, hours later, mimics this behavior. This is an example of

A) symbolic play.
B) object permanence.
C) deferred imitation.
D) means-end analysis.
E) displaced reference.

Question 5

Baby Jamal watches as a parent puts his stuffed bunny repeatedly in a certain location and retrieves the stuffed bunny from that location. Next, the parent puts the stuffed bunny in the same location, but then moves the stuffed bunny to another location while Jamal watches. Jamal continues to search for the stuffed bunny in the first location. This is an example of

A) object permanence.
B) memory recall.
C) displaced reference.
D) mental representation.
E) A-not-B error.

Question 6

The ability of an infant to re-enact an action that they observed earlier is called

A) deferred cognition.
B) displaced reference.
C) selective imitation.
D) mental representation.
E) deferred imitation.

Question 7

The _______ view asserts that infants have greater innate cognitive ability than Piaget assumed.

A) developmental
B) violation-of-expectation
C) information processing
D) nativist
E) object permanence

Question 8

Violation-of-expectation experiments have been used to examine whether infants

A) have mastered A-not-B tasks.
B) have an innate understanding of the laws of physics (such as gravity).
C) understand the mental states of others.
D) can remember a novel object.
E) have developed the ability to mentally represent the world.

Question 9

A researcher shows 4-month-old Asako a sieve with relatively large holes. First, the researcher drops rocks onto the sieve, and the rocks do not pass through. Next, the researcher pours sand on another sieve that looks exactly the same but has a transparent barrier so that the sand does not pass through. What do you think the researcher is testing with this experiment?

A) Asako's ability to form mental representations
B) Asako's understanding of gravity and support
C) Asako's understanding of object permanence
D) Asako's understanding of solidity and substance
E) Asako's ability to perform means-end analysis

Question 10

Five-month-old Shaheen does not look longer when he sees an object "floating" in air without support. This would refute a claim that he

A) understands object persistence.
B) has an innate understanding of gravity and support.
C) has expectations regarding the weight of objects.
D) is interested in the object.
E) is capable of means-end analysis.

Question 11

A researcher who believes that infants are hardwired to understand certain concepts such as object permanence or gravity is most likely a proponent of

A) a nativist view.
B) Piagetian theory.
C) an information processing view.
D) a developmental systems view.
E) social-cognitive development.

Question 12

In an approximate number sense experiment, researchers observed that 9-month-old Jasmine was able to distinguish number arrays that differed by a ratio of 2:3, while 6-month-old Kylie was not. What can we conclude about the about the two infants' number sense?

A) Jasmine is able to mentally represent numbers, while Kylie is not.
B) Jasmine has learned to count, while Kylie has not.
C) Jasmine has a more developed approximate number sense than Kylie.
D) Jasmine is able to deal with bigger numbers than Kylie.
E) Jasmine has gained the ability to understand ratios, while Kylie has not.

Question 13

According to critics of the nativist view of cognitive development, which is a possible alternative explanation of infants' longer looking times during experiments?

A) Infants' attention may be drawn to perceptual features of the stimulus, rather than reflecting their innate expectations.
B) Infants do not have innate skill but, rather, they learn through experience.
C) Nativists do not account for different habituation rates, which may result in longer looking times.
D) Nativists do not account for the influence of sensory feedback on infant looking behaviors.
E) At early ages, infants have not yet developed an understanding of object permanence.

Question 14

How might a proponent of a developmental systems view explain an infant's lack of success in the traditional A-not-B task as described by Piaget?

A) An A-not-B error demonstrates an infant's limited understanding of object permanence.
B) An A-not-B error demonstrates an infant's understanding of object permanence.
C) An A-not-B error may be due to a violation-of-expectation rather than lack of object permanence.
D) An A-not-B error may be due to factors such as perseveration and feedback from repeated actions rather than an infant's understanding of object permanence.
E) An A-not-B error demonstrates an infant's inability to make a mental representation of the object.

Question 15

What do modified A-not-B experiments that involve manipulations of infants' posture demonstrate?

A) The impact of sensory feedback is an important consideration when conducting A-not-B experiments.
B) Reaching for a specific location may be the result of an automatic reflex.
C) Infants do better at A-not-B tasks when they are standing.
D) Infants continue to search for objects in the same location until they are taught otherwise.
E) Infants can succeed in A-not-B tasks with a little help from the experimenter.

Question 16

Why do information-processing researchers sometimes examine infants' heart rate as an index of attention rather than (or in addition to) infants' gaze?

A) The methods used to quantify infants' gaze are unreliable.
B) Infants are easily distractible and shift their gaze from one object to another.
C) The methods used to quantify infants' gaze are subjective.
D) Looking at something alone does not necessarily mean that the infant is processing information about the stimulus.
E) Heart rate is more easily quantifiable than gaze.

Question 17

The stage of attention when an infant starts to process stimuli and learning occurs is referred to as

A) orientation.
B) automatic response.
C) sustained attention.
D) selective attention.
E) cognitive processing stage.

Question 18

A researcher notes that 9-month-old Sebastian is watching a picture and his heart rate has steadily slowed down from when the stimulus was first presented. What is the researcher's mostly likely interpretation?

A) Sebastian is processing the stimulus and is in the sustained attention phase.
B) Sebastian is transitioning to an attention termination phase.
C) Sebastian has detected a stimulus and is entering the orientation phase.
D) Sebastian has detected a stimulus and has entered the automatic response phase.
E) Sebastian is no longer processing the stimulus and is blank-staring at the stimulus.

Question 19

_______ is the degree to which something is attractive or noticeable to an infant.

A) Permanence
B) Relevance
C) Stimulus salience
D) Distractibility
E) Stimulus novelty

Question 20

An experimenter finds that 3-month-old Ava is better able to discriminate faces when seeing the faces paired with their talking voices compared to seeing the faces alone. This is evidence in support of the _______ hypothesis.

A) information processing
B) object permanence
C) multimodal stimuli
D) intersensory redundancy
E) stimulus salience

Question 21

Findings that infants do not show the same abilities in selective attention as seen at later points in development may

A) indicate a lack of brain maturity.
B) explain why infants are unable to perform A-not-B tasks.
C) be adaptive and allow infants notice a lot of things about their environment.
D) predict future attentiveness to detail (or lack thereof) later in life.
E) indicate that learning is hindered by the introducing of too much distraction.

Question 22

In habituation experiments, the fact that infants prefer to look at something new (novelty preference) is most often interpreted as the

A) infant having encoded a familiar stimulus during habituation and is remembering the familiar vs. novel object.
B) infant understanding object permanence.
C) infant being interested in the specific features of the novel stimulus.
D) infant's degree of selective attention.
E) infant having a cognitive delay.

Question 23

Which statement best describes the information processing view of cognitive development?

A) Infants move through qualitatively distinct substages of cognitive development.
B) Infants' cognitive development evolves as a result of processes involving infants' attention, encoding of sensory information, and memory.
C) Infants' cognition develops over time and culminates in the development of selective attention.
D) Infants' cognitive development is largely determined by the social and cultural context.
E) Infants are born with various innate capacities that develop as a result of experience over time.

Question 24

What is best definition of habituation, as used in the context of infant cognitive development?

A) The response to a novel stimulus
B) The state where an infant shows heightened interest in a stimulus
C) The change in an infant's heartrate caused by novel stimuli
D) Infants' preference for unfamiliar stimuli to familiar ones
E) The processing of information about a stimulus and decline of attention to the stimulus

Question 25

Researchers have used conjugate mobile experiments to study infants'

A) ability to perform deferred imitation.
B) coordination of secondary circular reactions.
C) understanding of object permanence.
D) duration of memory.
E) goal-directed actions.

Question 26

Infant Ekaterina spends an hour each day watching videos on her tablet. However, she has trouble relating what she sees on the screen to the real world. According to research, what can Ekaterina's parents do to help her to better interpret and apply what she sees on the screen to the real world?

A) Increase screen time to two hours a day.
B) Decrease screen time to 30 minutes a day.
C) Change the type of program she watches.
D) Ask her to explain what she watched.
E) Watch with her and talk about the programs.

Question 27

According to research on the impacts of socioeconomic environment on infant development, infants from low-income households, on average, are at greater risk of not achieving full cognitive potential. This is most likely the result of

A) greater frequency of single parenthood.
B) genetic influences that shape environments.
C) limited experience with cultural objects that appear in standardized tests.
D) a combination of less stimulating home environments, poor nutrition, and limited access to learning materials.
E) increased consumption of unhealthy foods and lack of sleep.

Question 28

Which statement best describes the role of cultural context in infant cognitive development?

A) Cognitive development processes may be universal. However, the materials that constitute a child's environment can differ from culture to culture.
B) Cognitive development is encouraged to a greater degree in some cultures than in others.
C) The results of studies in one culture can be readily applied to other cultures.
D) Cognitive development processes may be universal. However, culture determines the order in which various milestones are achieved.
E) Most cognitive development processes differ from culture to culture, challenging theories such as those of Piaget.

Question 29

Twelve-month-old Reese points at a puppy that has just entered the room. The caregiver interacts with Reese but does not look at the puppy. Reese continues to point persistently at the puppy. Researchers interpret such behavior as indicating that Reese

A) wants attention from the caregiver.
B) is excited about seeing the puppy.
C) wants to elicit joint attention with the caregiver.
D) is pointing out something that is novel to her.
E) has established joint attention.

Question 30

Which is evidence that an infant understands goal-directed reaching?

A) After being habituated to a person reaching for a certain toy, baby Isaiah looks longer when the person reaches for a different toy.
B) After being habituated to a person reaching for a certain toy, baby Isaiah becomes disinterested when the person reaches for the same toy.
C) After being habituated to a person reaching for a certain toy, baby Isaiah looks for a shorter time when the person reaches for a different toy.
D) After being habituated to a person reaching for a certain toy, baby Isaiah looks for a longer time when the person reaches for the toy using a claw.
E) After being habituated to a claw reaching for a certain toy, baby Isaiah looks for a longer time when a person reaches for a different toy.

Question 31

Fifteen-month-old Keisha watches her caregiver try to move a stack of blocks. But, the caregiver accidentally knocks the stack of blocks over. Keisha then tries to move the stack of blocks but does not try to knock them over. This suggests that Keisha

A) is capable of imitation.
B) prefers order over disorder.
C) is unable to exactly imitate the caregiver.
D) understands the principle of gravity.
E) understands the caregiver's intention.

Question 32

What is the purpose of false-belief experiments?

A) To determine whether infants/toddlers understand other people's beliefs
B) To determine whether infants/toddlers understand that others can have beliefs different from their own
C) To determine whether infants/toddlers have mastered the A-not-B task
D) To determine whether infants/toddlers can perform goal-directed action
E) To determine whether infants/toddlers can help others correct false beliefs

Question 33

What is a way that researchers infer that an infant or child is developing social cognitive understanding?

A) The infant/child is able to identify the false beliefs of others.
B) The infant/child starts to use mental state vocabulary.
C) The infant/child is able to perform deferred imitation.
D) The infant/child is able to understand the intentions of others.
E) All of the above

Question 34

The term social cognition refers to

A) the influence of society on emotional development.
B) the social interactions between caregivers and infants.
C) infants' ability to process, store, and apply information about people and social situations.
D) infants' ability to recognize faces and people.
E) the influence of social interactions between caregivers and infants on human development.

Question 35

How might caregiver sensitivity and emotional availability impact an infant's development of social cognition?

A) Caregivers model social interaction and social sensitivity, such that infants in turn learn about others.
B) Caregivers can provide direct instruction on social cognition, telling infants what to do to understand others' emotions.
C) Caregivers can support infants' regulation of emotions, allowing infants to then learn from their social environments
D) Both a and c
E) All of the above

Question 36

Which statement best describes the results of the multicultural study by Callaghan, et al. on the development of social cognition?

A) Infants/children in all situations achieved similar social cognitive skills, although the timing of early social-cognitive milestones differed substantially by culture.
B) Infants/children who are frequently taught by instruction are unable to learn through observation.
C) Infants/children in all situations achieved similar social cognitive skills, although there were some differences in the manner in which these skills were acquired.
D) Infants/children in most situations achieved similar social cognitive skills, but there were factors (such as maternal education and maternal work status) that affected the degree to which they acquired social-cognitive skills.
E) Infants/children in all situations achieved similar social cognitive skills, although there were differences in the order in which skills were acquired.

Question 37

In a cross-cultural study, researchers taught 15- to 18-month-old U.S. and Mayan infants how to use a novel object either by showing the object being used or showing the object being used while providing instruction. Whereas the U.S. infants were better able to imitate the action when they had some instruction compared to when they simply observed the action, the Mayan infants performed equally well with and without instruction. What is a possible conclusion that can be drawn from this result?

A) U.S. infants are culturally discouraged from learning from observation.
B) U.S. infants are culturally more accustomed to and reliant on being shown what to do.
C) Mayan infants are not accustomed to receiving instruction.
D) Mayan infants are culturally discouraged from relying on instruction.
E) Mayan infants have greater experience dealing with novel objects in their everyday lives.

Question 38

Which statement about the results of research on developmental cascades is most accurate?

A) Development of specific cognitive skills are rarely mediated by social and cultural context.
B) Infants who exhibit strong novelty preference continue to exhibit strong novelty preference into adolescence when teens are tested in a habituation-novelty preference experiment.
C) Because cognitive skills in infancy are discontinuous, they show no prediction for cognitive skills later in life.
D) Cognitive skills in infancy predict a range of cognitive skills into adulthood and have also been found to cascade to employment and wellbeing decades later.
E) Cognitive skills in infancy predict cognitive skills in childhood, particularly for similar types of skills such as memory.

Question 39

The finding that "individuals who engage in joint attention in infancy tend to perform better on language acquisition tasks in childhood" is an example of

A) an information processing view of cognitive development.
B) a nativist view of cognitive development.
C) a developmental systems view of cognitive development.
D) a cascade from social cognition.
E) cross-cultural consistency of social cognition.

Question 40

Which is not a tool that cognitive development researchers use to study infants?

A) Time of looking
B) Verbal reasoning tasks
C) Heart rate monitoring
D) Conjugate mobile tasks
E) A-not-B tasks

Question 41

According to Piaget, how does mental representation relate to means-end analysis?

Question 42

Piaget argued that young infants are not able to mentally represent the world until they develop the concept of object permanence through interaction with their environment. How might a nativist researcher counter this argument?

Question 43

What is the violation-of-expectation paradigm, and how does it help researchers study the cognitive abilities of infants?

Question 44

Nativists argue that infants are hardwired with core capacities related to the understanding of object permanence and physical rules. What are the main criticisms of this view based on the results of follow-up research?

Question 45

Explain how developmental systems theorists demonstrate that infants' performance on A-not-B tasks is not necessarily the result of the infants' understanding of object permanence.

Question 46

Briefly summarize the phases of attention with reference to changes in heart rates as described by information processing researchers.

Question 47

List and briefly describe the types of studies researchers use to study infants' memory?

Question 48

Explain how the home environment, as evaluated using tools such as the Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME), may affect an infant's cognitive development.

Question 49

Review this figure.
Briefly summarize and interpret the experimental results shown in this figure.

Question 50

How would you design an experiment to investigate an infant's understanding of others' false beliefs?