Deck 4: Perceptual and Motor Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Question 1

According to the Gestalt theory of perception, infants' perceptual skills would result in

A) initial difficulty in being able to visually separate objects from their surrounding environment.
B) an adultlike capacity to organize visual stimuli into meaningful patterns.
C) a strong preference for focusing on objects that are dynamic, rather than static in nature.
D) marked distress when viewing an array of new visual stimuli because it would overwhelm the senses.
E) preferences for matching colorful objects.

Answer 1

B

Question 2

The ecological theory of perception proposed a significant departure from earlier views on infant perceptual development because the theory emphasized the

A) infant's role in piecing together dynamic, visual experiences in their environment in a way that allowed them to make sense of their experiences.
B) negative impact that environment poverty would have in reducing an infant's ability to correctly develop key cognitive processes.
C) dependency that infants had on their cultural context to provide important visual cues necessary for proper perceptual development.
D) role of direct parent-child interactions in helping children make sense of their visual world.
E) role of visually complex environments in facilitating perceptual skills.

Answer 2

A

Question 3

Molly and her mother are playing with several different size balls in their living room. With the small balls, Molly has learned how to grasp them in her hands and throw them back towards her mother. With the larger balls however, when Molly attempts to grasp them, as she touches and tries to hold them, she finds it is too difficult to do. As a result, she switches to rolling them back and forth. Which concept explains Molly's behavior?

A) Habituation and recovery
B) Maturation
C) Shape constancy
D) Perception-action feedback loop
E) Perceptual accommodation

Answer 3

D

Question 4

Jackson's mother presented him with a new toy, a colorful rattler. At first, Jackson stared intently at the toy, but after attending to it for a few minutes, he began to look away, and eventually did not show interest in the toy at all. Jackson's behavior would signal that he had

A) demonstrated visual preference.
B) became overstimulated by the toy.
C) showed a strong novelty preference.
D) did not like the appearance of the toy.
E) habituated to the toy.

Question 5

Marcus was just given something new to eat by his mother. Upon tasting it, his lips immediately puckered, and his mouth produced saliva. Marcus' mom likely gave Marcus something that was _______ flavored.

A) sweet
B) sour
C) salty
D) bitter
E) umami

Question 6

Laticia loved eating spicy foods when she was pregnant, while Anne preferred foods that were heavily salted. Their interests in these foods continued as they breastfed their babies. Given what you know about the development of infant taste preferences, it is likely that

A) both Laticia and Anne will have difficulty getting their children to enjoy the foods they themselves like.
B) Laticia's child will likely prefer spicy foods, while Anne's child will likely show no preference for flavor.
C) Laticia's child will prefer spicy foods and Anne's child will prefer salty foods.
D) both Laticia and Anne's children will show a preference for a wide variety of flavors.
E) Anne's child will prefer spicy foods and Laticia's child will prefer salty foods

Question 7

Which of the following structures in the retina is responsible for determining the overall visual acuity of infants?

A) Fovea
B) Optic nerve
C) Rods
D) Lens
E) Cones

Question 8

Dr. Tay is interested in examining at what age infants' visual acuity improves. She shows infants of various ages two photos of the same object, a flower. In one of the photos, the picture is slightly blurred. In the other photo, the picture is sharp. Based on the concept of preferential looking, if infants can see the difference between the two photos, they will likely

A) look equally long at both the blurry and the clear photo.
B) look longer at the blurred photo compared to the clear photo.
C) look longer at the clear photo compared to the blurred one.
D) choose to not look at either photo.
E) None of the above-the infants' looking behavior cannot be determined from this study.

Question 9

Which of the following best illustrates how infants' ability to perceive color is different from adults'?

A) Infants are unable to distinguish colors within the same color category as adults.
B) Infants categorize colors based on brightness rather than color.
C) Infants categorize colors in the same way as do adults.
D) Infants' color categorization depends on their visual acuity.
E) Infants show adult-like categorization of color for red versus blue, but group green and blue together.

Question 10

_______ refers to the perception of an object as having a constant size despite changes in the size of the retinal image, whereas _______ refers to the perception of an object as having a constant shape despite changes to the retinal image.

A) shape constancy; size constancy
B) visual acuity; shape constancy
C) size constancy; wholeness constancy
D) size constancy; shape constancy
E) shape constancy; size consistency

Question 11

Yumi was shown a drawing of a bicycle. After habituating to this first image, she was then presented with a second picture of the same bicycle behind a gate, with its front wheel being blocked. Yumi's recognition of the partially perceived bicycle as being identical to the whole image is an indication of the Gestalt concept of

A) differential awareness.
B) occlusion.
C) size constancy.
D) grouping effect.
E) good continuation.

Question 12

Four-month-old Emile watches as a researcher rolls a ball down a plank, through a colorful tunnel. Although he can smoothly track the progress of the ball's movement down the track, he doesn't look to the other side of the tunnel until the ball pops out. On the other hand, 7-month-old Bella anticipates its appearance after entering the tunnel and shifts her eyes to the end of the tunnel before the ball appears. Compared to Emile, Bella shows

A) motion parallax.
B) depth perception.
C) attractiveness effect.
D) anticipatory eye movements.
E) visual saccades.

Question 13

To accurately track the eye movement of infants, researchers oftentimes use _______, or devices that are built into computer monitors or worn on the participants' head.

A) eye-trackers
B) depth cues
C) monocular devices
D) perception scanners
E) motion detectors

Question 14

When viewing objects at different distances, the lens of the eye automatically changes shape in a process known as

A) visual stimulation.
B) sensory reactivity.
C) visual accommodation.
D) binocular cues.
E) occulatory shift.

Question 15

In a study on infant depth cue perception, researchers found that older infants could judge the distances of objects using only one eye, but that younger infants needed both eyes to do so. Older infants are therefore able to rely on _______ cues to gauge distance whereas younger infants need to still rely on _______ cues.

A) depth; shallow
B) monocular; binocular
C) monocular; motion
D) motion; binocular
E) depth, motion

Question 16

Ainsley was looking out the window of her parents' car as they were taking a trip to the beach. To her eyes, it appeared as though the trees and fences nearest to the car went past her very quickly, but the large clouds overhead moved very slowly, a phenomenon known as

A) motion parallax.
B) visual input.
C) perceptual focus.
D) size constancy.
E) depth perception.

Question 17

One explanation advanced for the "attractiveness effect" in infants is that

A) infants look longer at their mothers' rather than a strangers' face, as they find such familiar faces to be attractive.
B) infants do not show any preference for attractive faces the way that adults do because they prefer faces that are familiar to them, attractive or not.
C) infants prefer to look at faces that match their own skin tone and consider those to be attractive.
D) young infants prefer to look at all faces, but as they get older, they begin to prefer attractive faces as they are exposed increasingly to screens with attractive faces.
E) infants prefer "attractive" faces as they resemble the "prototype" face that would result from averaging many faces.

Question 18

Which of these scenarios best illustrates the concept of perceptual narrowing?

A) Infants retain their ability to distinguish among all types of human faces because of the biological predisposition to be attracted to human features.
B) With age, infants become much more adept at focusing on things that move.
C) Young infants understand that a partially occluded object is still a whole object.
D) Infants raised by their fathers show greater ability to distinguish among male faces compared to female faces.
E) Infants retain their ability to detect differences in non-human species well into toddlerhood.

Question 19

Which of the following scenarios would best illustrate the role of the other-race effect observed in infants?

A) Infants raised among individuals of a specific race tend to look longer at faces of people that appear to be of a different racial background.
B) Younger infants are more accurate at differentiating the features of people of different races compared to older infants.
C) Infants raised in a multi-racial environment tend to have difficulty differentiating the facial features of people of different races.
D) Increasing infant exposure to faces of different races increases their preference for looking at faces that match their own race.
E) Older infants are more accurate at differentiating the features of people of different races compared to younger infants.

Question 20

Being able to detect a sound is defined as _______ threshold, whereas being able to detect that a change in sound occurred from a first sound to a second sound is called _______ threshold.

A) absolute; difference
B) minimal; change
C) difference; minimal
D) change; absolute
E) absolute; minimal

Question 21

4-month-old Tandy was brought to a research laboratory as part of a study on the music preferences of infants. She was taught to suck on a pacifier to start recordings of different types of music. Based on your knowledge of music preferences in infants, you would expect that Tandy would

A) prefer to listen to music that she has never heard before, given it is novel.
B) prefer the music segments to be broken into small, discrete sound bites.
C) prefer music that was structurally consistent with the music typical to her culture.
D) not prefer music that had a clear rhythmic pattern.
E) show preference for human voices over music.

Question 22

In a series of studies, Vouloumanos and Werker (2004) examined speech sound preferences in infants. Which of following results would be consistent with their conclusion that preference for speech begins before a baby is even born?

A) The finding that preference for speech sounds begins after 2 months of age.
B) Infants as young as 4 days old already showed a preference for speech over nonspeech sounds.
C) Newborn infants showed no preference in listening to human or monkey vocalizations.
D) By 3 months of age, infants show clear preference for human over non-human vocalizations.
E) By one month of age, infants retain a preference for animal over human sounds.

Question 23

Jessica is watching from her playpen as her mother plays on the piano. Every time her mother moves her fingers on the keyboard, a sound is made. Jessica is able to connect her mother's fingers on the keyboard to the sounds that she hears because of

A) asynchronous perception.
B) parallel sensitivity.
C) sensory maturation.
D) temporal synchrony.
E) perceptual understanding.

Question 24

Henry is being fed by his mother. Each time her mouth moves, he hears sounds ("Open wide! This is yummy!") and then feels the cold, smooth texture of the food in his mouth. After each bite of food, he hears the spoon lightly tapping against the applesauce container as his mother prepares another bite of food for him. Henry's integration of these experiences into an understanding of being fed is an example of

A) gustatory perception.
B) sensory maturation.
C) temporal synchrony.
D) asynchronous perception.
E) intermodal perception.

Question 25

Infants were initially habituated to the category "vehicles" by being shown images of different cars and trucks. Following this, they were shown a picture of a school bus next to a picture of an apple. Based on your knowledge of how infants form categories for different objects, which of the following statements would best illustrate how infants would respond?

A) They would look less at the school bus relative to the apple because it does not look like the cars and trucks they encountered before.
B) They would look more at the school bus relative to the apple because it does not look like the cars and trucks they had seen before.
C) They would look less at the school bus compared to the apple, having grouped the bus as a type of vehicle.
D) They would look less at the school bus compared to the apple, because they have more experiences with apples than unfamiliar school buses.
E) They would look more at the school bus relative to the apple because they would recognize it as being part of the vehicle category.

Question 26

Gesell's work involved documenting the motor abilities and physical growth of infants, including changing skills in prehension, which refers to

A) evidence of rolling and crawling.
B) early walking abilities.
C) voluntary lying down and sitting skills.
D) approaching, grasping, and releasing objects.
E) being able to sit up unaided.

Question 27

In class, your professor states that there is a universal pattern of motor development in infants, and that all infants develop motor skills in the same order, regardless of biology or experience. Your professor follows the thinking of Gesell, by strongly endorsing the role of _______ in infant motor development.

A) maturation
B) environment
C) genetics
D) nutrition
E) evolution

Question 28

Which of the following examples would support Myrtle McGraw's conclusion of how early environmental experiences contribute to infant motor development?

A) Infants who are well nourished during the first year of life show greater motor skills abilities than malnourished infants.
B) Lucy's swimming lessons as a young child would likely result in her experiencing greater coordination in such skills throughout her life.
C) Substantial early interventions into infant motor skills will overstress mental capacities, resulting in delays in reaching future milestones.
D) Intervention in motor skill development in one area of functioning (e.g., reaching) will spill over to other areas of motor development (e.g., walking).
E) Early infant experiences result in superior motor skills abilities, provided that they are maintained past childhood.

Question 29

Which of the following statements correctly summarizes the contribution of Thelen's research to the understanding of infant motor development?

A) Newborn stepping movement provides opportunities for early practice before higher order brain centers take over and voluntary walking appears.
B) Early experiences have significant effects on the timing of infant motor skill development.
C) Factors such as weight and muscle mass can impact the type of behaviors that infants display.
D) Motor skills such as standing and walking are predominately controlled by lower centers of the brain.
E) Cultural factors such as encouragement of early standing and walking can accelerate the timing of typical motor milestones.

Question 30

Stable posture affects all of the following except

A) what an infant sees, touches, and the actions they engage in.
B) the infant's ability to lean forward to grasp a toy.
C) the coordination of different muscle groups to maintain a steady seated position.
D) the ability of the infant's eyes to focus on near and distant objects.
E) the ability to walk upright.

Question 31

All of the following muscle groups play a central role in the infant's ability to sit unaided and without supports except the

A) neck.
B) torso.
C) arms.
D) hips.
E) legs.

Question 32

Mai and Clifton are both sitting upright on an experimenter's lap and are presented with an interesting toy that is slightly beyond their reach. Although Clifton attempts to lean forward to grab the object, Mai does not, knowing it is too far away. Based on your knowledge of the development of reaching, you could conclude that

A) Clifton is likely younger than Mai.
B) Mai is likely younger than Clifton.
C) both infants are younger than 4 months of age.
D) both infants are older than 8 months old.
E) their ages cannot be determined from the information provided.

Question 33

Kendra is beginning to display evidence of prospective control. This means that

A) she will be able to pick up small objects using only her forefinger and thumb.
B) when reaching for objects, she will adjust her hand to match the object's size before touching the object.
C) she is beginning to be able to sit up unaided on a firm surface.
D) she can correctly anticipate the connection between the appearance of an object and its texture.
E) she can accurately follow a moving object with both eyes and by moving her head.

Question 34

Reya is 30 months old. During art class, she has crayons, a sheet of regular paper, and a sheet of paper that is covered in plastic and wet. What is she likely to do?

A) Spend a lot of time figuring out whether to color the paper or the wet plastic surface before doing anything
B) Be more interested in banging the brushes than painting
C) Color the paper because the surface allows the colors to show but the wet plastic does not
D) Not color either surface because holding crayons is difficult at this age
E) Attempt to color the wet plastic surface to create something different

Question 35

Isha and Tybere are both 10 months old. Isha is considered an "experienced" crawler whereas Tybere is not. When placed at the top of a steep flight of stairs, it is most likely that

A) Isha would confidently attempt to crawl down the stairs, but Tybere would stay on the landing.
B) Tybere would attempt to crawl down the stairs, but Isha would remain on the landing.
C) both infants would remain on the landing.
D) both infants would confidently crawl down the stairs.
E) both infants will crawl down the stairs, but Isha would move more quickly.

Question 36

Cruising behavior in infants is functionally similar to _______ behavior because of the heavy reliance on _______.

A) walking; muscles in the torso
B) walking; leg muscles
C) standing; leg and torso muscles
D) crawling; muscles in the torso
E) crawling; muscles in the arms

Question 37

Gait-mats are useful to assess infant walking ability, however they are limited in that they

A) require infants to walk in a straight line.
B) only work when infants walk at a slow pace.
C) cannot assess length of footsteps.
D) require infants to be able to walk down an incline.
E) are only usable for infants under 12 months of age.

Question 38

Aiden's parents consistently placed him on his tummy whenever he went to sleep. Gertrude, on the other hand, was consistently placed on her back. Based on the findings from the Back-to-Sleep campaign, it is likely that

A) both infants will reach developmental milestones related to related to rolling over, sitting, and crawling around the same time.
B) Aiden will likely be delayed compared to Gertrude in reaching milestones related to rolling over, sitting, and crawling.
C) Gertrude will likely be delayed compared to Aiden in skills related to related to rolling over, sitting, and crawling.
D) because neither infant was able to experience both types of sleeping positions, both are likely to show delays in reaching basic motor milestones.
E) None of the above: Sleep position has no impact on development.

Question 39

Makena is a 5-month-old infant born to Kenyan parents who recently immigrated to the United States. Based on your knowledge of the role of cultural norms on motor development in infants, you would predict that Makena will

A) be delayed compared to her same-aged peers in motor milestones related to sitting and standing, provided that her parents continue to embrace Kenyan cultural norms of child-rearing.
B) be ahead of her same-aged peers in some motor milestones related to sitting and standing provided that her parents continue to embrace Kenyan cultural norms of child-rearing.
C) likely be delayed in reaching motor milestones like sitting and standing because cultural norms in the United States promote slower infant motor skills attainment compared to most other countries.
D) show accelerated achievement of motor milestones such as sitting and standing only if her parents immediately embrace American cultural norms of child-rearing.
E) likely reach motor milestones around the same time as her American peers because research has shown that culture has little influence in predicting motor development.

Question 40

The use of the ghavora among mothers in Tajikistan contributes to our understanding of the role of culture in influencing motor development because

A) it significantly restricts infant movement when used, and as a result, infants who spend many hours in the gahvora may show delays in certain motor skills based on norms established by the World Health Organization.
B) its use significantly restricts infant movement, but Tajikistan infants are meeting all motor milestones at the same ages as established by the World Health Organization.
C) it encourages complex motor coordination, which translates into faster achievement of motor milestones compared to other infants of Asian heritage.
D) the ghavora discourages fine motor coordination of the hands, which results in difficulties in writing by young children.
E) its use is consistent with East Asian practices that encourage early standing and walking behavior.

Question 41

Develop an experiment using the preferential looking test to assess whether infants can distinguish the facial features of two different monkeys.

Question 42

You are preparing to give a seminar on healthy eating to a group of expecting women. One of the most important points you want to stress is that healthy eating in infants can start even before the child is born. Based on what you know about infant eating preferences, how would you present this point?

Question 43

Explain how Slater and colleagues were able to study infant comprehension of size constancy in infants using the preferential looking test.

Question 44

How did Gibson and Walk (1960) interpret findings from the visual cliff study regarding infant depth perception, and what research shows that "depth perception" alone is insufficient to explain what infants do on a visual cliff?

Question 45

To what extent do changes in infant music preferences provide evidence of perceptual narrowing?

Question 46

Explain how researchers can test infant understanding of intermodal perception using habituation and recovery.

Question 47

To what extent did McGraw's research on twins Johnny and Jimmy challenge Gesell's hypothesis about the role of biology in explaining infant motor skills development?

Question 48

Explain how Thelen's research on infant stepping behavior revolutionized what researchers understood about early infant motor development.

Question 49

How did Needham's "sticky mittens" experiment contributed to our understanding of the role of tactile touch on the development of reaching and grasping in infants?

Question 50

Explain how the "back to sleep" movement influenced infants' ability to progress through certain motor milestones.