Deck 12: Systematic Observational Methods

Question 1

Which of the following features of a study are aspects of "naturalness?"

A) the behaviors being studied
B) the setting in which the research is conducted
C) the manner in which participants are recruited
D) the treatments that are (or are not) applied

Answer 1

A,D

Question 2

How is time primarily used in terms of category systems?

A) assessing behaviors within a specified unit of time (e.g., 5 seconds, 10 minutes)
B) assessing behaviors with duration of time
C) assessing behaviors after performed a given number of times
D) A and B
E) B and C
F) all of the above

Answer 2

D

Question 3

Using an _____(a)_____ system of categorizing ensures (at least to some degree) that we will note most, if not all, potentially relevant event or behaviors. _____(b)_____ categorization systems have fewer details recorded for any given event or behavior.

A) intensive; intensive
B) extensive; intensive
C) intensive; extensive
D) extensive; extensive

Answer 3

D

Question 4

Bales' 12-category interaction process analysis (IPA) would be considered a more _____(a)_____ system. Caldwell's 65-category APPROACH coding scheme would be considered a more _____(b)_____ system.

A) intensive; extensive
B) extensive; intensive
C) natural; artificial
D) artificial; natural

Question 5

Dalton and Elanor are preparing an initial coding scheme for an upcoming field observation of people's behaviors in shopping malls. When developing their coding scheme, all of the following statements are true, EXCEPT:

A) they should consider the setting in which their coding will take place
B) they should consider the behaviors that they expect to observe in that setting
C) they do not need to make sure that each category has a similar number of levels
D) they do not need to make sure their categorization system is moderately intensive

Question 6

Researchers assessed the interrater reliability of their pilot study coding scheme, and found that its reliability was lacking. What are some ways they could enhance the reliability of their category system or coding scheme? (circle all that apply)

A) use an intensive coding scheme
B) predefine the units of observation
C) try to categorize observations concurrently with observing them
D) avoid inferences about interal states or motivations, and instead focus only on observable events or behaviors

Question 7

Three researchers wanted to determine the interrater reliability of their field observations regarding aggressiveness of dog encounters at the dog park. Specifically, for each dog-pair, the researchers noted the breeds (or suspected breeds) of each dog, and how aggressive the dogs' first interaction was (1 = not at all aggressive; 5 = moderately aggressive, 10 = they got into a fight). To determine the interrater reliability of their aggressiveness observations, which of the following techniques would be most appropriate and yield the highest (reliable) reliability value?

A) Cohen's kappa
B) Fleiss' kappa
C) Intraclass correlation
D) B or C
E) all of the above
F) none of the above

Question 8

Which of the following would be an example of a unit of observation?

A) any discernable body movement (e.g., shifted body weight, shook hands)
B) the amount of time that one makes eye contact with another
C) the number of steps one takes to the door
D) the number of people present in a room
E) all of the above

Question 9

Naturalistic observational studies offer which of the following benefits?

A) greater internal validity
B) greater depth of information for exploratory studies
C) rich information for generating theories
D) thorough information for better hypothesis testing

Question 10

Maurice and Nora are planning an observational study, and trying to decide on how involved they will be in the observational setting. To avoid influencing people's responses by being present, they decide to use the experience sampling method (ESM) to obtain systematic observations. Their choice of involvement in the naturalistic setting would be considered:

A) "going native"
B) non-participatory observation
C) partial participatory observation
D) archival research

Question 11

Which of the following would be considered non-participatory observation? (circle all that apply)

A) the experience sampling method
B) archival research
C) being completely hidden in a specially-designed secret room
D) recording people's behaviors by watching the diagonal mirrors in supermarkets

Question 12

You are a research assistant in a developmental psychology program, and tasked with observing children's expression of feelings and emotions, on the playground, to other children and adults. How intensive or extensive would your categorization system be? In your response, (a) explain and justify why you would use a primarily intensive or extensive category system, and (b) provide an example for how five units of observation would be categorized in your system (i.e., provide 5 examples of behavior or other units of observation that would be noted in your categorization system - are those observations hierarchically or laterally organized?).

Question 13

You are interested in the phenomenon of "basking in reflected glory," where people tend to affiliate themselves with successful others (e.g., wearing sports paraphernalia), without any personal connection to those successful others, in the hope that some of this success or others' positive attributions will "reflect onto them." Describe one way in which you could investigate this phenomenon with an extremely high degree of naturalness. Then, describe one way in which you could investigate this phenomenon with a very low degree of naturalness. How would they differ? In your response, be sure to indicate (a) the different features of a study that determine the extent to which it is considered "natural," (b) how those features would be manifested in studies of high and low naturalness, and (c) the specific ways in which you would alter those features for your specific examples to obtain high and low naturalness.

Question 14

You do not want to "go native" in an upcoming observational study because you fear your in-person presence will unduly influence people's daily behaviors and internal states. Describe two methods of partial participatory observation and two methods of non-participatory observation. Provide an example for each type of partial- and non-participatory observation.

Question 15

For some reason, you are fascinated with dog parks, and want to conduct a systematic observational study of the dynamics of people's behavior while at the dog park. What are the important factors to consider when designing your study? For example, given that you want the study to be very naturalistic, you would want to ensure that the behaviors being exhibited are an existing part of people's repertoire, that the setting is not perceived by park goers to be artificially constructed for the purposes of research, and that any "treatments" are such that park goers would have experienced these discrete events with or without the presence of a researcher. Besides the degree of "naturalness," what are three of the factors that one must consider when designing a naturalistic observational study? In your response, be sure to (a) describe each of the three factors; (b) explain the different considerations for each factor, and the benefits and drawbacks to these considerations; and (c) provide an example for how each factor would manifest in the context of observation of the dog park (i.e., what would your decision regarding each factor look like had you actually conducted the observational study?).
Answer template:
Factors or dimensions to consider:
a. observer involvement in the natural setting
b. how extensive or intensive will the coding scheme be
c. will they use qualitative, quantitative, or both types of coding
d. how will they classify the unit of observation.

Question 16

What are the three dimensions or facets of "naturalness?"

Question 17

What are some issues that may arise when conducting a participatory observation study?

Question 18

Describe what is meant by the intensity-extensity distinction in coding systems. In which instances might a researcher adopt one approach over the other, and with what consequences?

Question 19

What is Cohen's kappa? How is agreement or reliability between coders determined?

Question 20

Can a research laboratory (where participants would typically participate in psychological experiments) be an appropriate setting for naturalistic observation? In what situations might this be applicable? Why would a researcher want to use a laboratory as the preferred setting to observe "natural" behavior? What would be an example of two studies where the only difference between them is that one utilizes naturalistic observation to assess the dependent measure, and the other uses an "unnatural" (e.g., written self-report) measure to assess the same dependent construct? Does naturalistic observation primarily involve indirect assessments of the constructs we are trying to measure - why or why not? Could there be a situation where the participant is knowingly interacting with the experimenter in a laboratory setting, but the data being collected is still considered "natural behavior?"

Question 21

You are interested in how teenagers think about decision making, and want to use naturalistic observation to assess the frequency of different thoughts, and valence of those thoughts, that a person experiences when asked to respond to a given stimuli (e.g., when asked whether he or she would try a new type of illicit drug). How could you do it? Could you use facial expressions in some way? What about eye movement or other unobtrusive physiological movements or responses? How else could you observe cognition (albeit indirectly) as unobtrusively and as "naturally" as possible? What might your coding scheme look like for these behavioral observations?