Deck 14: The Environment

Question 1

Talk about:
-Anthropogenic

Answer 1

originated by human beings.

Question 2

Talk about:
-Artificial

Answer 2

created or modified by human activity.

Question 3

Talk about:
-Biocentric

Answer 3

focused on all living things and their interests and denying the greater intrinsic importance of human beings vis-à-vis other life forms.

Question 4

Talk about:
-Carbon sink

Question 5

Talk about:
-Climate change

Question 6

Talk about:
-Deforestation

Question 7

Talk about:
-Global warming

Question 8

Talk about:
-Greenhouse effect

Question 9

Talk about:
-Instrumentally valuable

Question 10

Talk about:
-Natural

Question 11

Talk about:
-Slash and burn agriculture

Question 12

According to the text, what is the most fundamental question of environmental ethics?

A) Do we have moral duties to nonhuman elements of the environment?
B) Are we free to do as we please with the environment?
C) Do we have moral duties to address climate change and deforestation?
D) Which nonhuman elements of the environment are intrinsically valuable?

Question 13

The standard view among Western philosophers is that nonhuman elements of the environment are

A) always members of the moral community.
B) never members of the moral community.
C) sometimes members of the moral community.
D) None of the above (There is no standard view among Western philosophers.)

Question 14

According to Kantians and contractarians, _______ are members of the moral community.

A) living things and the nonliving environment
B) only living things
C) only humans and animals
D) only humans

Question 15

According to utilitarianism, _______ are members of the moral community.

A) living things and the nonliving environment
B) only living things
C) only humans and animals
D) only humans

Question 16

According to Kantians, contractarians and utilitarians, the nonliving environment is

A) instrumentally valuable.
B) intrinsically valuable.
C) Both a and b
D) Neither a nor b

Question 17

According to the Biocentrism Argument, something has independent moral importance if and only if it is

A) sentient.
B) rational.
C) autonomous.
D) living.

Question 18

Biocentrists think that being alive is the basis for intrinsic value because if something is alive,

A) it can feel pleasure and pain.
B) it is a member of the moral community.
C) things can go better or worse for it.
D) humans tend to care about it.

Question 19

According to the text, we might wonder whether being able to be better or worse off is really a basis for intrinsic value because things can be better or worse off without being

A) sentient.
B) alive.
C) rational.
D) All of the above

Question 20

Some environmentalists criticize biocentrism on the grounds that it cannot account for the intrinsic value of

A) mountains.
B) ecosystems.
C) the atmosphere.
D) All of the above

Question 21

Environmentalists commonly argue that the nonliving environment is intrinsically valuable because it is

A) important to humans.
B) artificial.
C) natural.
D) All of the above

Question 22

According to the Last Person Argument, we can tell that the natural environment is intrinsically valuable because it would be _______ for the last person on earth to destroy it.

A) psychologically difficult
B) morally wrong
C) impossible
D) morally okay

Question 23

Which philosopher argued that we can tell that natural beauty is intrinsically valuable by imagining two worlds, one with natural beauty and one without it?

A) Moore
B) Hill
C) Taylor
D) Routley

Question 24

Which argument from the text concludes that we are not morally required to change or refrain from our ordinary consumer practices to improve the environmental situation?

A) The Last Person Argument
B) The Biocentrism Argument
C) The No Difference Argument
D) None of the above

Question 25

One might criticize the No Difference Argument on the grounds that the actions of individuals

A) can be morally wrong even if they make no difference.
B) add up to make a morally significant difference.
C) Both a and b
D) Neither a nor b

Question 26

According to Moore, if we would prefer a world with nothing but natural beauty to a barren and lifeless world, this shows that natural beauty is

A) intrinsically valuable.
B) instrumentally valuable.
C) Both a and b
D) Neither a nor b

Question 27

One might question the biocentrist's commitment to the equal intrinsic importance of all living things on the grounds that

A) one's child's life is more valuable than a mosquito's.
B) some beings possess more valuable traits than others.
C) some beings possess more abilities than others.
D) All of the above

Question 28

According to the text, one difficulty with arguing that there is something important in itself about being natural is that

A) the term "natural" is ambiguous.
B) nothing is truly natural.
C) many artificial things are valuable.
D) the term "important" is ambiguous.

Question 29

One might criticize the argument that there is something important in itself about being natural on the grounds that

A) not everything natural is valuable, so it is difficult to explain why the valuable natural things are valuable.
B) not everything valuable is natural, and it is difficult to explain why natural things would be valuable.
C) not everything natural is valuable, so being natural cannot explain why anything is valuable.
D) not everything valuable is natural, so being natural cannot explain why anything is valuable.

Question 30

Which of the following things do environmentalists not think are intrinsically valuable?

A) People
B) Animals
C) Pebbles
D) Mountains

Question 31

According to Routley, we can tell the natural environment is intrinsically valuable because

A) it is made up of living things, which are intrinsically valuable.
B) it would be immoral for the last person on earth to destroy it.
C) humans confer value on it by valuing it.
D) we would prefer a world with it to a world without it.

Question 32

Explain and discuss the various arguments for the conclusion that the natural environment is intrinsically valuable. Do you think any of them succeeds? Do you agree with their conclusion? Defend your answers.

Question 33

Explain and discuss the biocentrism argument. Do you agree that all and only living things are intrinsically valuable? Do you agree that all living things are equally intrinsically valuable? Why or why not?

Question 34

What obligations do you think we have to protect the (nonhuman) environment, and why? Do we have obligations involving just other living things, or also the natural environment? Do these obligations come from our own interests or from the intrinsic moral importance of the environment? Defend your answers.

Question 35

Critically assess the No Difference Argument. Do you think it succeeds in establishing that we are not morally required to change or refrain from our ordinary consumer practices in order to improve the environmental situation? Why or why not?

Question 36

Explain the reasoning typified by Routley and Moore in their defenses of the value of the natural environment. How do they seek to establish that the natural environment is valuable? Do you think this reasoning succeeds? Why or why not?

Question 37

According to Taylor, we are morally required to consider the interests of a thing if and only if it

A) is human.
B) is alive.
C) is sentient.
D) exists.

Question 38

Taylor claims that humans are

A) superior to animals in moral merit but not in inherent worth.
B) superior to animals in inherent worth but not in moral merit.
C) superior to animals in both moral merit and inherent worth.
D) not superior to animals in either moral merit nor inherent worth.

Question 39

According to Greek humanism, humans are superior to animals in virtue of

A) their rational capacities.
B) the fact that they possess immaterial souls.
C) being created in God's image.
D) being members of the species Homo sapiens.

Question 40

According to Taylor, what does it mean to say that an entity has a good of its own?

A) It can be benefited or harmed.
B) It makes valuable contributions to Earth's natural ecosystems.
C) It is capable of making human beings better off.
D) None of the above

Question 41

Taylor claims that when there is a conflict between our respect for persons and our respect for nature, we should

A) favor the interests of persons.
B) favor the interests of nature.
C) maximize the number of interests satisfied.
D) None of the above

Question 42

According to a life-centered system of environmental ethics,

A) we have prima facie moral obligations to wild plants and animals to protect and promote their good for their sake.
B) we never have a reason to promote the interests of humans over the interests of nonhumans.
C) all living things have the same interests.
D) None of the above

Question 43

According to anthropocentric approaches to ethics, the moral status of human actions which affect the environment is determined by

A) their consequences for human well-being.
B) whether or not they're consistent with norms that protect human rights.
C) Both a and b
D) Neither a nor b

Question 44

Which of the following types of things would Taylor claim has a good of its own?

A) Organisms
B) Species populations
C) Communities of life
D) All of the above

Question 45

According to Taylor, when do we take the attitude of "respect for nature" toward wild living things?

A) When we regard them as having merit by human standards
B) When we regard them as having inherent worth
C) When we regard them as having merit by the standards appropriate to their species
D) When we regard them as having a good of their own

Question 46

Which of the following is not a component of Taylor's biocentric outlook on nature?

A) Each individual organism is a teleological center of life.
B) The claim that humans are by nature superior to other species is groundless.
C) Humans and animals must be treated in the exact same way.
D) Humans are members of the Earth's community of life.

Question 47

What is an anthropocentric approach to ethics? What alternative does Taylor propose to such views? What does Taylor's view imply about how we should live our lives? Defend your answers.

Question 48

In what sense does Taylor admit that human beings are better than other species? Why doesn't he think that this is sufficient to establish that humans have greater inherent worth than other species? Do you find his argument convincing? Why or why not?

Question 49

Many people believe that humans are superior to nonhuman animals because we possess the traits of rationality and autonomy, whereas other animals do not. How does Taylor respond to such views? Do you find his response convincing? Why or why not?

Question 50

According to Hill, harm to humans and rights violations are

A) not good reasons to oppose environmental destruction.
B) the only good reasons to oppose environmental destruction.
C) good reasons to oppose environmental destruction but not the only ones.
D) irrelevant to the morality of environmental destruction.

Question 51

Hill believes that we must take forests into account in our moral deliberations because they

A) have rights.
B) are intrinsically valuable.
C) Both a and b
D) Neither a nor b

Question 52

Hill recommends we address the issue of environmental ethics by turning our attention away from _______ and toward _______.

A) the rightness of actions; moral character
B) moral character; the rightness of actions
C) ideals of human excellence; the destruction of natural environments
D) well-being; rights

Question 53

According to Hill, those who destroy natural environments

A) always lack an accurate view of their place in the universe.
B) often, but not always, lack an accurate view of their place in the universe.
C) rarely lack an accurate view of their place in the universe.
D) never do so out of a lack of perspective on their place in the universe.

Question 54

Hill claims that people who lack respect for the environment tend to lack the virtue of

A) temperance.
B) courage.
C) gratitude.
D) prudence.

Question 55

According to Hill, proper humility requires recognition

A) of the unimportance of human interests.
B) of the importance of non-sentient nature.
C) that one lacks power and influence.
D) All of the above

Question 56

According to Hill, what does it mean to cherish something?

A) To be happy with it in the moment
B) To care for it for its own sake
C) To want the thing to survive/persist
D) All of the above

Question 57

According to Hill, which of the following is a good reason not to destroy the natural environment?

A) Doing so indicates a lack of virtue.
B) The natural environment often has aesthetic value.
C) The natural environment bears utility for humans.
D) All of the above

Question 58

What does Hill say about anti-environmentalists who think that nature is valuable, but only insofar as it is a means to enjoyment?

A) They lack the common human tendency to cherish what enriches our lives.
B) They don't think that nature is valuable for the right reasons.
C) They are irrational.
D) All of the above

Question 59

According to Hill, what defect is often displayed by those who destroy natural environments?

A) Ignorance
B) Greed
C) Laziness
D) Envy

Question 60

Why does Hill think it is difficult to explain what is wrong with destroying the environment in terms of rights and welfare? What alternative framework does he propose for looking at the issue? Why does he think this framework will be useful when standard ethical theories fail? Do you find his approach convincing? Defend your answers.

Question 61

In what ways does Hill suggest that those who fail to respect natural environments are falling short of ideals of human excellence? Raise what you think is the most serious objection to his view. Is your objection successful? Why or why not?

Question 62

What vices does Hill think are displayed by those who fail to respect to nature? What virtues does he think they fail to display? Do you agree with Hill's claims? Defend your answers and explain their implications for how we should relate to the environment.

Question 63

According to Broome, what kind of duty is owed to a particular person or persons?

A) Duties of justice
B) Duties of goodness
C) Civic duties
D) All of the above

Question 64

Which of the following is true of duties of goodness?

A) They apply only to governments.
B) They trump all other kinds of moral duties.
C) They concern improving the world.
D) All of the above

Question 65

In the private morality of climate change, why are duties of justice more important than duties of goodness according to Broome?

A) Duties of goodness belong to the domain of public morality not private morality.
B) There is no way that individuals can reduce their emissions.
C) Climate change does not involve the violation of anyone's rights.
D) Individual resources are better directed to areas where they will have a greater impact.

Question 66

Which of the following is true of public morality?

A) It includes duties of justice.
B) It includes duties of goodness.
C) It consists of the moral duties of governments.
D) All of the above

Question 67

Which of the following is true of duties of justice?

A) They apply only to individuals.
B) They involve respecting the rights of individuals.
C) They require that we never cause harm to any individual.
D) All of the above

Question 68

Why, according to Broome, is the harm done by emissions an injustice?

A) Because the harm is not accidental
B) Because the harm is serious
C) Because the persons harmed are not compensated
D) All of the above

Question 69

How does Broome recommend we carry out our duty not to cause the emission of greenhouse gas?

A) By compensating victims directly
B) By making restitutions through a collective international scheme
C) By reducing our emissions and engage in offsetting
D) All of the above

Question 70

Which of the following is true of offsetting?

A) It is a way of compensating victims of climate change.
B) It is a way of avoiding the harm caused by emissions.
C) It is required by our duties of goodness.
D) It is in violation of our duties of justice.

Question 71

In economics, a harm that is not borne by the person or persons who caused it is known as a(n)

A) externality.
B) inefficiency
C) Pareto improvement.
D) marginal loss.

Question 72

According to Broome, which of the following is true of government's duty to improve climate conditions?

A) It can be carried out without demanding any net sacrifice of its citizens.
B) It is far less important than government's duty of justice to improve climate conditions.
C) It will require citizens to make substantial personal sacrifices.
D) It is largely impossible to discharge given the advanced stage of climate change.

Question 73

Why does Broome claim that, in the domain of private morality, duties of justice take precedence over duties of goodness when it comes to climate? Is he right about this in your view? Why or why not?

Question 74

Broome claims that individuals who cause emissions are committing an injustice. How does he argue for this claim? Is his argument convincing in your view? Why or why not?

Question 75

Broome claims that no one needs to make any sacrifice to solve the problem caused by the externality of greenhouse gas emissions. What does he mean by this and how does he argue for it? Are you convinced? Why or why not?

Question 76

According to Sinnott-Armstrong, it can be morally better not to drive unnecessarily without

A) humans bearing significant responsibility for global warming.
B) it being wrong to drive unnecessarily.
C) it being morally permissible to drive unnecessarily.
D) governments being obligated to fight global warming.

Question 77

Sinnott-Armstrong points out that greenhouse gases are perfectly fine in small quantities- the problem emerges only when there is too much of them. Which principle does this undermine as a basis for the wrongness of driving unnecessarily?

A) The harm principle
B) The universalizability principle
C) The means principle
D) The risk principle

Question 78

According to Sinnott-Armstrong, it should be clear from the start that

A) collective moral obligations always follow from individual moral obligations.
B) collective moral obligations do not always follow from individual moral obligations.
C) individual moral obligations always follow from collective moral obligations.
D) individual moral obligations do not always follow from collective moral obligations.

Question 79

According to Sinnott-Armstrong, the harm principle does not make it wrong to drive unnecessarily because doing so

A) causes only imperceptible harm.
B) does not cause any harm.
C) only causes harm many years later.
D) only causes harms I do not intend.

Question 80

Sinnott-Armstrong objects to the contribution principle as a basis for the wrongness of driving unnecessarily on the grounds that doing so

A) contributes only negligibly to climate change.
B) only contributes to climate change many years later.
C) does not contribute to climate change.
D) does not intentionally contribute to climate change.