Deck 2: Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)

Question 1

Durkheim states that social facts are "the beliefs, tendencies, and practices of the group taken collectively … A social fact is any way of acting … [that is] capable of exerting over the individual an external constraint" (The Rules of Sociological Method [1895/1982]: 54, 59) Identify at least five specific social facts evident in society Explain why each fact selected should be considered a social fact Discuss/elaborate on how what might appear as "contradictory" social facts (e.g., marriage, and divorce) function as constraining forces in society.

Answer 1

1. Language: Language is a social fact because it is a shared system of communication that exerts an external constraint on individuals. It shapes the way people think, communicate, and interact with one another.

2. Marriage: Marriage is a social fact because it is a culturally and legally recognized institution that imposes certain expectations and obligations on individuals. It constrains individuals to adhere to societal norms and expectations regarding relationships and family structures.

3. Education: Education is a social fact because it is a system of formal learning that imposes external constraints on individuals by shaping their knowledge, skills, and socialization processes. It dictates the way individuals are prepared for their roles in society.

4. Religion: Religion is a social fact because it is a set of beliefs, rituals, and practices that exert external constraints on individuals by shaping their moral values, behaviors, and social interactions. It influences the way individuals perceive the world and their place in it.

5. Fashion: Fashion is a social fact because it is a collective trend or style that exerts external constraints on individuals by influencing their choices of clothing, appearance, and self-expression. It dictates the way individuals conform to or deviate from societal standards of beauty and style.

Marriage and divorce may appear as contradictory social facts because they represent opposing relationship statuses. However, both function as constraining forces in society. Marriage constrains individuals to commit to a legally and socially recognized partnership, imposing expectations of fidelity, support, and shared responsibilities. On the other hand, divorce constrains individuals to navigate legal and social processes that dictate the dissolution of a marriage, including division of assets, custody arrangements, and social stigma. Both marriage and divorce exert external constraints on individuals by shaping their choices, behaviors, and social interactions within the context of intimate relationships. Despite their apparent contradiction, they both serve as social facts that influence and constrain individual behavior within the institution of marriage.

Question 2

Durkheim asserted in The Rules of Sociological Method, that "crime is normal because it is completely impossible for any society entirely free of it to exist" (1901/1982: 99) Discuss, elaborate, and assess how this statement exemplifies both the methodological and the conceptual framework he outlined for sociology Given Durkheim's theoretical framework, is this assertion about crime surprising?

Answer 2

Durkheim's assertion that "crime is normal because it is completely impossible for any society entirely free of it to exist" exemplifies both the methodological and conceptual framework he outlined for sociology in The Rules of Sociological Method.

Methodologically, Durkheim emphasized the importance of studying social facts, which are external to the individual and exert a coercive influence over behavior. By asserting that crime is a normal part of society, Durkheim is highlighting the existence of a social fact that is inherent to all societies. This aligns with his methodological framework, as he believed that sociology should focus on studying these social facts in order to understand the functioning of society.

Conceptually, Durkheim's assertion about the normality of crime reflects his theory of anomie and the importance of social integration. He argued that crime is a natural and necessary part of society because it serves to define and reinforce the boundaries of acceptable behavior. In this sense, crime is a reflection of the level of social integration within a society. This aligns with his conceptual framework, as he believed that sociology should focus on understanding the social forces that shape behavior and the ways in which individuals are integrated into society.

Given Durkheim's theoretical framework, his assertion about the normality of crime is not surprising. It is consistent with his emphasis on the study of social facts and the role of social integration in shaping behavior. Overall, Durkheim's assertion about the normality of crime exemplifies both the methodological and conceptual framework he outlined for sociology.

Question 3

Discuss Durkheim's analysis of social integration, the social structures and conditions that are conducive to integration, and how the social integration or solidarity of modern society differs from that in traditional societies.

Answer 3

Emile Durkheim, a prominent sociologist, analyzed social integration as a key concept in understanding the functioning of societies. He argued that social integration, or social solidarity, is essential for maintaining social order and stability. Durkheim identified two main types of social integration: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity.

Mechanical solidarity is characteristic of traditional societies, where individuals are bound together by shared values, beliefs, and traditions. In these societies, social integration is achieved through a high degree of similarity and conformity among individuals. This type of solidarity is based on the collective conscience, where everyone shares the same beliefs and values, and deviance is met with strong social sanctions.

On the other hand, organic solidarity is found in modern, industrial societies. In these societies, social integration is based on the interdependence of individuals and the division of labor. Unlike in traditional societies, where individuals perform similar tasks and have similar roles, in modern societies, individuals have diverse roles and functions. This interdependence creates a sense of solidarity based on mutual reliance and cooperation.

Durkheim also identified the social structures and conditions that are conducive to integration. He argued that strong social institutions, such as the family, education system, and religious organizations, play a crucial role in promoting social integration. These institutions provide individuals with a sense of belonging and help to instill shared values and norms.

In modern society, Durkheim observed that social integration differs from that in traditional societies. He noted that modern societies are characterized by a higher degree of individualism and diversity, which can lead to a weaker sense of social solidarity. However, he also believed that modern societies have the potential to develop a new form of solidarity based on the interdependence of individuals and the shared values of a complex division of labor.

In conclusion, Durkheim's analysis of social integration highlights the importance of solidarity in maintaining social order and stability. He identified the differences between traditional and modern societies in terms of the mechanisms of social integration, and emphasized the role of social institutions in promoting integration. His work continues to be influential in the field of sociology and provides valuable insights into the dynamics of social cohesion and solidarity.

Question 4

Compare and contrast Marx's and Durkheim's understanding of (a) the division of labor, and (b) its implications for the structure of, and quality of life in, contemporary society Use specific examples in your discussion that will help to illustrate the theoretical points you are elaborating.

Question 5

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-Explain, using an example from everyday life, the meaning of the statement "society has its own nature, and consequently its requirements are quite different from those of our nature as individuals: The interests of the whole are not necessarily those of the part."

Question 6

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-Discuss one major difference between how Marx and Durkheim conceptualize the division of labor in capitalist society.

Question 7

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-What are sacred things? Give two examples from contemporary society, and explain why they are sacred.

Question 8

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-What societal conditions are conducive to producing altruistic suicide?

Question 9

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-Identify three distinct ways in which modern society differs from traditional society.

Question 10

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-What is the function of punishment in society?

Question 11

Please write 2 or 3 sentences per question.

-Explain the implications for research of Durkheim's phrase: "Consider social facts as things."

Question 12

Society, Durkheim emphasizes, is:

A) Nothing more than the collection of individuals who live in a particular country
B) More than the sum of the individuals who comprise society
C) Impossible to study scientifically
D) Cannot be studied independent of its history

Question 13

For Durkheim, social facts:

A) Are collective social phenomena
B) Exist independent of individuals
C) Constrain individual and collective behavior
D) All of the above

Question 14

When something is seen as being greater than the sum of its parts, we can say that it has a collective or group reality that is:

A) Reified
B) Sui generis
C) Exploited by individuals
D) Impossible to study

Question 15

Social facts:

A) Are the same as statistical facts
B) Have nothing to do with statistical facts
C) Encompass statistical facts and other collective phenomena
D) None of the above

Question 16

When Durkheim states that we should "consider social facts as things," this means that:

A) Social phenomena, like things, have an external and objective existence in society
B) Social phenomena, like things, can be studied objectively
C) Social phenomena, like things, can be observed and measured
D) All of the above

Question 17

Following Durkheim, sociologists study social phenomena by using … of the phenomenon in question.

A) Photographs
B) Empirical indicators
C) Microscopic examples
D) Their personal opinions

Question 18

The collective expectations in society:

A) Define and constrain social roles and social relationships
B) Are irrelevant to the conduct of everyday life
C) Impose no obligations on individual and social behavior
D) Are always codified in formal laws

Question 19

Traditional societies are characterized by:

A) Cultural similarity
B) Anomie
C) Cultural diversity
D) Extensive occupational specialization

Question 20

Durkheim uses the term, "collective conscience" to refer to:

A) The individual's freedom not to belong to any collectivity
B) A society's shared collective feelings, values, beliefs, and ideals
C) A society's collective economy
D) Religious doctrines

Question 21

Traditional societies are characterized by:

A) Extensive individualism
B) A strong collective conscience
C) The same degree of individualism that characterizes modern society
D) Restitutive law

Question 22

Traditional societies/communities tend to be characterized by:

A) Emotionally distant, impersonal relationships
B) Relationships between strangers
C) Many overlapping social ties and relationships
D) Individuals who come from diverse ethnic backgrounds

Question 23

For Durkheim modern society is characterized by:

A) Social disorder
B) Cooperation among people from different social and economic backgrounds
C) The absence of solidarity
D) Altruism

Question 24

The division of labor, according to Durkheim, produces:

A) Alienation
B) Incompetence
C) Interdependence
D) None of the above

Question 25

"Organic solidarity is more likely to be found in modern than in traditional societies."

Question 26

Laws and contracts:

A) Exist independent of society
B) Have legal but not any moral force
C) Are formal expressions of societal expectations
D) Only protect individuals' self-interests

Question 27

Durkheim studied suicide rates because he was interested in:

A) The psychological reasons that lead people to commit suicide
B) The social conditions that produce and restrain suicide
C) The history of the idea of suicide
D) Suicide as a social problem

Question 28

The type of suicide most likely to be found in societies/communities that are characterized by a high degree of individualism is called:

A) Egoistic
B) Altruistic
C) Anomic
D) Fatalistic

Question 29

In Durkheim's analysis, the comparatively higher incidence of suicide in societies/communities undergoing rapid economic transformation is most likely due to:

A) The abrupt disruption in the society's established norms and customs
B) Occupational specialization
C) The decline of religious doctrines prohibiting suicide
D) Alienated labor

Question 30

Social conditions by which individuals are tightly absorbed into the community are more likely to produce … suicide than … suicide.

A) Anomic than egoistic
B) Altruistic than anomic
C) Egoistic than altruistic
D) Egoistic than anomic

Question 31

"Religion is an example of something that is not a social fact."

Question 32

The sacred refers to:

A) Anything that only church leaders define as sacred
B) Anything that has been regarded as religious only in the past
C) Anything that any community or collectivity defines as sacred
D) None of the above

Question 33

Symbols are collective representations of shared beliefs:

A) Found only in traditional societies
B) Found only in modern societies
C) Found only in nation states
D) Found in all societies

Question 34

Durkheim argues that there is "something eternal in religion" because:

A) All societies/communities have a need for ritualized social gatherings that affirm collective feelings and ideas
B) Many religions have a theology of life after death
C) Religious ceremonies celebrate belief in eternity
D) Religion is needed as a counterbalance to the pursuit of economic profit

Question 35

If we were to study the sacred in contemporary society, we might go to the following sites:

A) Funerals
B) Football matches
C) Festivals
D) Any of the above

Question 36

In Durkheim's conceptualization, religion, parenthood, and the occupational division of labor, share in common the fact that:

A) They are social structures that constrain individual and collective behavior
B) They can be studied objectively
C) They are functional to maintaining social solidarity
D) All of the above

Question 37

"Crime is … because it is completely impossible for any society free of it to exist."

A) Pathological
B) Normal
C) Abnormal
D) Mechanical

Question 38

Emile Durkheim would most likely welcome the presence of sororities, fraternities, and other social groups on college campuses.

Question 39

Group participation is sociologically important because it:

A) Attaches us to something other than ourselves
B) Integrates us into society
C) Constrains our individual appetites
D) All of the above

Question 40

Durkheim's methodological legacy is most evident in the popularity today of:

A) Historical research
B) Ethnographic research
C) Survey research
D) Content analysis

Question 41

Durkheim would most likely see the US government's rescue of Wall Street financial firms as evidence of:

A) Inequality
B) Interdependence
C) Mechanical solidarity
D) Restitutive law