Deck 14: Moral Development

Question 1

Contemporary research focuses on three facets of morality. Which of the following is not one of these facets?

A) Social
B) Affect
C) Cognition
D) Behaviour

Answer 1

Social

Question 2

Cognitive-developmental research on moral development focuses on

A) situational influences on moral behaviour.
B) the impact of cognitive development on moral reasoning.
C) how children learn to behave morally through observation and imitation.
D) the impact of socialization on children's moral reasoning.

Answer 2

the impact of cognitive development on moral reasoning.

Question 3

According to cognitive-developmental models, children's reasoning about complex moral issues such as the death penalty may be simplistic because

A) young children in our culture are not provided opportunities to practice thinking about such issues.
B) young children are incapable of weighing the evidence on all sides.
C) the television shows children favour typically present simple solutions to complex problems.
D) None of the alternatives are correct.

Answer 3

young children are incapable of weighing the evidence on all sides.

Question 4

Piaget examined children's conceptions of morality

A) using games with rules, such as marbles.
B) using moral dilemmas in which they had to choose between obeying a law and breaking a law for the benefit of an individual.
C) in tasks in which children receive some kind of payment that they then have to distribute among themselves and others.
D) by asking children to report on personal behaviours.

Question 5

Children in Piaget's first stage of moral development (age 2 to 4 years)

A) follow rules religiously.
B) have no real conception of morality.
C) tend to believe that they will be punished for every rule violation, even those that go undetected.
D) hold to abstract standards of right and wrong.

Question 6

When Leigh takes her son, Tom, to the supermarket, she insists they return the shopping cart to the storage area in front of the store instead of leaving it in the parking lot. Leigh has told Tom that the store has a rule that carts be returned, and explains that it is both a considerate and safe thing to do. Tom becomes extremely upset when he accompanies his father to the supermarket and his father refuses to return the cart to the front of the store. Based on Piaget's stages of moral development, how old is Tom likely to be?

A) 2 years old
B) 5 years old
C) 8 years old
D) 11 years old

Question 7

Children in the stage of moral realism

A) enjoy debating hypothetical moral dilemmas.
B) believe rules are arbitrary and easily changed.
C) do not question the purpose or correctness of rules.
D) believe rules exist to help and protect people.

Question 8

Children in Piaget's second stage of moral reasoning evaluate moral situations in terms of

A) their physical and objective consequences alone.
B) the character's motives and intention alone.
C) both consequences and intentions.
D) how badly the character feels about what he or she has done.

Question 9

Mr. Jones, a kindergarten teacher, returns to his classroom to find paint spilled all over the floor. He discovers that the mess originated when Tommy decided to play Peter Pan and "flew" into the easel spilling one cup of paint. When Rachel saw how upset her friend Tommy was about the mess he had made, she tried to help him clean it up and spilled the remaining three cups of paint. Mr. Jones decides to let the class as a group determine what sorts of punishment Tommy and Rachel should receive. According to Piaget, Mr. Jones should expect the students to

A) assign a more severe punishment to Tommy because, even though he caused less damage, he was running in the classroom which violates school rules.
B) assign a more severe punishment to Rachel because, even though she was trying to be a good friend and help Tommy, she made the biggest mess.
C) assign the same punishment to both children because they both contributed to the mess.
D) dismiss the issue as unimportant.

Question 10

Mateo believes that his father's rules are absolute and that they cannot be changed, even when his older brother tells him that the rules can bent. Mateo does not question his father's authority. According to this information, it is more likely that Mateo is _______ years old.

A) 2
B) 4
C) 6
D) Mateo could be any of the above ages.

Question 11

Immanent justice refers to the idea that

A) moral evaluations should take into consideration an actor's intentions as well as the consequences of his actions.
B) rules are dictated by authority and are unchangeable.
C) all rule violations, even those undetected, will be punished.
D) resources should be divided equally among those who contribute to an effort or cause.

Question 12

Emily, age 12, is trying to teach Lisa, her 5-year-old neighbour how to play chess. It is clear to Emily that Lisa is having trouble learning the rules of the game. According to Piaget's theory, Emily is likely to

A) complain bitterly to her parents that "Lisa just won't follow the rules!" and refuse to play any longer.
B) persist with her attempts to teach Lisa the proper rules of chess, despite Lisa's tears.
C) invent a new set of rules that Lisa can follow.
D) lecture Lisa on the importance of rules.

Question 13

At what stage in Piaget's model of moral development do children begin to consider a person's motives and intentions when making moral evaluations?

A) Ages 2 to 4 years
B) Stage of moral realism, ages 5 to 7 years
C) Stage of moral relativism, ages 8 to 11 years
D) Ages 12 and beyond

Question 14

Which of the following is characteristic of children in Piaget's final stage of moral development?

A) Children become capable of developing new rules.
B) Children expand their moral reasoning to include larger societal and political concerns.
C) Children use hypothetical thinking to expand their ability to apply moral principles.
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 15

Piaget proposed that advancement in moral reasoning is a function of

A) advancing cognitive abilities and genetic influences.
B) social experiences and changes in cognitive abilities.
C) evolutionary pressures.
D) operant conditioning.

Question 16

Richard is playing a medieval game and feels that the rules need to be adapted and proposes an alternative. Based on this information, which Piagetian stage of moral development is Richard?

A) Moral realism
B) Moral relativism
C) Moral adaptivism
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 17

How did the research methods employed by Kohlberg and Piaget differ?

A) Kohlberg asked children to reason about whether it is better to obey a law or break a law for the benefit of an individual, while Piaget presented children scenarios in which they were to evaluate who was naughtier.
B) Piaget used a longitudinal research design, while Kohlberg used a cross-sectional design.
C) Kohlberg asked youths and adults to reason about contemporary social problems, while Piaget asked about hypothetical dilemmas.
D) Kohlberg studied girls while Piaget included only boys in his samples.

Question 18

Which of the following is accurate?

A) Most individuals reach Kohlberg's 6th stage.
B) Kohlberg speculated that a seventh stage of moral development might also exist that enters the realm of religious faith.
C) Kohlberg's model of moral development is based on the environmental/learning perspective.
D) Piaget's theory of moral reasoning extends and elaborates on Kohlberg's ideas.

Question 19

In Kohlberg's theory, advances in moral reasoning reflect

A) an increased ability to consider issues from multiple or broader perspectives.
B) experience with people at lower levels of moral development.
C) the cumulative effects of the person's reinforcement history.
D) adoption of a code of values.

Question 20

In Kohlberg's preconventional stage of moral reasoning, children

A) have difficulty seeing an issue from another's perspective.
B) believe moral rules should apply equally to all and are the best way to resolve conflicts between people.
C) evaluate moral dilemmas on the basis of personal principles of fairness and justice.
D) believe all individuals have equal rights and equal value.

Question 21

Children who reason at Kohlberg's conventional level tend to value

A) one's own self-interests.
B) conformity.
C) the principles of fairness and justice.
D) human life.

Question 22

Individuals who reason at Kohlberg's postconventional level evaluate moral dilemmas involving justice according to

A) fairness, justice, and individual human rights.
B) what will maintain the social order, regardless of its impact on individual human rights.
C) what will be met with greatest amount of social approval.
D) one's own self-interests.

Question 23

Kohlberg's model of moral development is similar to Piaget's in that both

A) believe moral development is the result of improved cognitive skills and social experience.
B) contend that moral development proceeds through stages.
C) believe that each stage forms a structured whole, so children will generally respond consistently to different situations.
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 24

Billy's mom is in labour, about to have a baby. Her husband is rushing at 120 km/hr to get her to the hospital in time. Billy, who is riding in the back seat, says, ""Daddy, you're going over the speed limit. Isn't that against the law?" Daddy replies "It might be, but that doesn't matter in an emergency like this. I have to get mommy to the hospital quickly!" What is the father's level of moral reasoning?

A) preconventional
B) conventional
C) postconventional
D) autonomous morality

Question 25

Stephen has cognitive difficulties (has an intellectual disability). He still lives with his parents but has recently found a girlfriend. He tells his new girlfriend that if they are to have sex, they must use condoms because his parents said so. According to Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning, which level is Stephen most likely at?

A) Level 1 (preconventional)
B) Level 2 (conventional)
C) Level 3 (postconventional)
D) Level 4 (realitivism)

Question 26

Turiel's model distinguished between rule violations in three domains. Which is NOT one of these domains?

A) Moral domain
B) Social domain (social conventions)
C) Religious domain
D) Matters of personal choice

Question 27

Turiel was interested in rule violations involving social conventions. What would be an example of this?

A) Lying
B) Being impolite
C) Choice of friends
D) Stealing

Question 28

Turiel was interested in rule violations in the moral domain. What would be an example of this?

A) Stealing
B) Being impolite
C) Choice of hairstyle
D) Addressing people using the proper titles

Question 29

According to Turiel, children's understanding of issues within the moral domain is thought to result from their

A) social interactions.
B) cognitive equilibrium.
C) adopting social norms.
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 30

Juliette was caught stealing from her parents. What domain of Turiel's model is Juliette violating?

A) moral
B) social
C) personal
D) None of the alternatives are correct

Question 31

The paradox of altruism is the logical dilemma faced by ethologists who wish to explain

A) why moral reasoning does not predict moral behaviour.
B) why individuals may perform altruistic acts in one situation but not in other, highly similar situations.
C) how altruistic behaviour is maintained in a species when it could reduce the likelihood that the altruistic individual's genes will survive.
D) why people perform acts of altruism even though our culture offers few rewards for doing so.

Question 32

Kin selection refers to the idea that

A) individuals will perform altruistic acts at risk to themselves if there is a chance that it will increase the likelihood of survival for someone who carries genes similar to their own.
B) humans are genetically predisposed to be altruistic because humans live in social groups and performing altruistic acts increases the likelihood that the group will survive.
C) humans are more likely to act with extreme aggression against relatives because it is less likely that individuals who share genes will retaliate in a way that ends in death.
D) humans are genetically predisposed to be altruistic because humans live in social groups and performing altruistic acts increases the likelihood that the individual will be on the receiving end of an altruistic act someday in the future.

Question 33

The process of reciprocal altruism refers to

A) a theoretical explanation for the exclusion of altruism directed to nonfamily members.
B) an explanation for altruism that suggests people are socialized to be helpful, anticipating future help themselves.
C) an ethological explanation of altruism that suggests individuals help members of their group in hope of ensuring the survival of genes similar to their own.
D) an explanation for altruistic behaviours that focuses on cognitive factors.

Question 34

While out fishing with his brother and a friend, Bob's boat overturns. Which of the following is the LEAST accurate statement regarding this incident?

A) Bob is more likely to help his brother than his friend.
B) Bob is more likely to help his friend than his brother.
C) The principle of kin selection is likely to help people understand Bob's behaviour.
D) The least paradoxical action, according to ethological theory, would be for Bob to save himself.

Question 35

Ethologists explain aggression in terms of

A) cognitive development.
B) social learning.
C) temperament.
D) evolutionary processes.

Question 36

A dominance hierarchy is a structured social group where

A) those higher on the dominance ladder control those who are lower.
B) smarter children tend to control those who are not as smart.
C) those who are skilled at peacemaking behaviours tend to be highest on the ladder.
D) None of the alternatives are correct.

Question 37

Learning theorists explain moral development in terms of

A) biological maturation.
B) environmental mechanisms such as reinforcement, punishment, and observation.
C) evolutionary pressures.
D) intelligence.

Question 38

Learning theorists contend that

A) moral reasoning and moral conduct are somewhat independent processes.
B) moral development proceeds through stages.
C) moral conduct is highly consistent across situations.
D) knowing how a child reasons about moral issues allows one to accurately predict how he or she will behave when faced with a moral dilemma.

Question 39

Most of the research on moral development conducted within the learning theory tradition has been based on the work of

A) B. F. Skinner.
B) Lawrence Kohlberg.
C) E. O. Wilson.
D) Albert Bandura.

Question 40

Learning theorists argue that children will behave morally once they are

A) cognitively able to take the perspective of another.
B) reinforced for doing so.
C) capable of explaining the rationale behind their actions.
D) able to see the benefit of moral action for their own reproductive success.

Question 41

A social service worker is convinced that the increases in violent behaviour he has observed among the youth in his community over the past 20 years is due to the increase in violent themes and images on television. This explanation is MOST consistent with which theoretical perspective?

A) Cognitive-developmental
B) Environmental/learning
C) Ethological
D) Sociobiological

Question 42

A researcher in the sociocultural tradition would be most interested in

A) the unique processes a given child experiences as he or she constructs moral thought.
B) the influence of consequences of one's actions upon moral behaviour.
C) how cultural institutions such as schools, churches, and community service organizations contribute to children's moral development.
D) genetic influences on moral thinking.

Question 43

Much sociocultural research on moral development focuses on

A) children's involvement in moral situations that naturally arise during everyday life.
B) children's reasoning about hypothetical moral situations.
C) children's reasoning about the consequences of violations of social rules.
D) how computer-based activities that mimic real-life situations, such as videogames, can influence children's moral behaviour.

Question 44

In keeping with Bronfenbrenner's ecological model, researchers working within the ____________ tradition are concerned with how aspects of parents' lives, such as the nature of their employment, directly and indirectly affect children's involvement in prosocial and antisocial activities.

A) cognitive-developmental
B) environmental/Learning
C) evolutionary and biological
D) sociocultural

Question 45

If a developmentalist wants to study how interactions in the child's community can lead to a better understanding of moral development, the developmentalist would be using the ________ approach.

A) Cognitive-developmental approach
B) Evolutionary-biological approach
C) Environmental-learning approach
D) Sociocultural approach

Question 46

Recent tests of Piaget's theory suggest that

A) Piaget correctly estimated younger children's moral reasoning abilities.
B) if an actor's intentions are made very salient, young children are able to use that information and make more mature moral judgments.
C) Piaget's model is correct for younger children, but inaccurate for older children.
D) Piaget overestimated children's moral reasoning abilities.

Question 47

Research by Walker, Hennig, and Krettenauer (2000) supports Piaget's contention that children can achieve advances in moral reasoning through

A) observing others perform prosocial acts.
B) observing others perform antisocial acts
C) discussions with peers.
D) discussions with adults.

Question 48

Cross-cultural studies of Kohlberg's theory suggest that

A) people in all cultures of the world progress through the stages of moral reasoning outlined by Kohlberg, although not necessarily in the same order.
B) Kohlberg's theory accurately measures the moral reasoning of females in most cultures of the world, but fails to address the moral reasoning of males.
C) individuals in most cultures of the world advance to Kohlberg's fifth stage.
D) Kohlberg's theory fails to address the moral issues and concepts that are central to some other cultures.

Question 49

Critics argue that Kohlberg underestimated the moral reasoning skills of females because

A) Kohlberg's rating scheme assigns higher scores to judgments based on laws and rules than to judgments based on responsibility and care.
B) Kohlberg never included any females in his studies.
C) the females who participated in Kohlberg's studies were not university graduates while the male participants did hold university degrees.
D) the themes of Kohlberg's dilemmas focused on money, competition, and legal issues rather than life, love, and family.

Question 50

Research on Turiel's model of moral reasoning suggest that there are some acts involving harm and justice that are universally regarded as wrong. Which of the following alternatives is universally agreed upon as wrong?

A) A father beats his son with a cane for repeatedly playing hooky from school.
B) A family member eats beef regularly.
C) A friend breaks his promise.
D) The day after his father's death, the eldest son had a haircut and ate chicken.

Question 51

Cross-cultural research concerning Turiel's theory has found that

A) culturally appropriate versions of Turiel's stories have replicated his findings in a diverse array of societies.
B) there is considerable cultural variability in how children classify various kinds of rule violations.
C) those in lower-income families are less likely to draw clear distinctions between moral rules and social conventions.
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 52

Researchers interested in children's reasoning about distributive justice examine

A) the factors children use in assigning blame and responsibility.
B) altruism.
C) how children allocate a limited resource among a group of deserving people.
D) children's reactions to prosocial dilemmas in which they have to decide whether to assist someone at some cost to themselves.

Question 53

Each year, Ms. Fay, a fifth-grade science teacher, presents a prize of $25 to the best group science project entered in the school science fair. The students who received the prize this year included two who invested little in the project, two who were involved to a medium degree, and one child, Beth, who did most of the work. According to the text, how will the group distribute the $25?

A) The students will each try to take the largest amount of earnings for themselves, regardless of the amount of work they contributed to the project.
B) Each student will receive $5.
C) Beth will receive the largest chunk of the $25, while the two children who did the least amount of work will receive much smaller amounts.
D) The girls will allow the boys to take larger amounts of money than they deserve when one considers the amount of work they contributed to the project.

Question 54

Four year old Karen is in preschool and her group has won a prize because they sold the most cookies at a fundraiser. She must divide $100 between herself and five other group members. According to distributive justice, how is she most likely to divide the prize?

A) She will divide the prize equally
B) She will keep a bigger portion of the prize for herself
C) She will not keep any portion of the prize
D) None of the alternatives are correct.

Question 55

When children are presented with a story about a character who broke a rule and are asked to assign blame and responsibility, children tend to

A) approach the problem in a manner fundamentally different from that employed by adults.
B) determine whether the story character is responsible for any damage before deciding on a punishment.
C) believe, accurately, that their parents will judge the character more harshly than they do.
D) focus their attention solely on the extent of punishment required.

Question 56

Children and their parents are read a story about little boy named Peter who let his sister's hamster, Tippy, out of his cage without first asking permission, as he knew he should. Tippy manages to escape Peter's grasp, and the family searches for 3 days before Tippy is finally found and returned to his cage. When children are asked to judge Peter and his actions, they tend to

A) ignore the fact that Peter's actions had a negative effect on the family.
B) rate Peter positively, because nothing really bad happened.
C) rate Peter negatively and predict their parents would judge Peter even more harshly than they did.
D) place the blame on the sister.

Question 57

Bob, a 10^th grade student, participates in a research study about exclusion of a person as a friend, as a member of a club, or from a school. Which of the following is probably NOT characteristic of Bob?

A) Bob stated that exclusion from a school on the basis of gender or race is unacceptable.
B) Bob stated that it is less negative to exclude a girl from Boy Scouts than it is to exclude someone from Boy Scouts because of his race.
C) Bob has never excluded someone as a friend.
D) Bob's responses to the study were less negative this year, as a 10th grader, than they would have been when he was in elementary school.

Question 58

As participants in a research study, Barry, Sandy, and their son Jeffrey were asked to discuss hypothetical moral dilemmas as well as moral dilemmas that their family has experienced. The researchers noticed that

A) the hypothetical moral dilemmas were not discussed as much as the actual dilemmas.
B) Jeffrey's level of reasoning about the moral dilemmas is higher when he thinks about them on his own compared to when he discusses them with his parents.
C) Barry and Sandy tended to lecture and be rather opinionated when talking to Jeffrey about hypothetical moral dilemmas.
D) Jeffrey displayed a more mature level of thinking about real life rather than hypothetical dilemmas.

Question 59

Jasmine participated in a study that measured her level of moral reasoning. She was among the most mature moral reasoners in her class. The researchers were not surprised when they discovered that her parents use a(n) __________ punishment style.

A) love withdrawal
B) inductive
C) power assertive
D) authoritarian

Question 60

Garett participated in a study that measured his level of moral reasoning. He was among the most immature moral reasoners in his class. The researchers were not surprised when they discovered that his parents use a(n) __________ punishment style.

A) love withdrawal
B) inductive
C) power assertive
D) authoritarian

Question 61

The type of discipline that is most effective with a particular child is one that best matches the child's personality and temperament. This notion exemplifies

A) goodness of fit.
B) sympathetic altruism.
C) immanent justice.
D) induction theory.

Question 62

The disciplinary strategy referred to as power assertion involves

A) the use of commands, threats, and physical force.
B) guilt as a means of inducing children's compliance with moral sanctions.
C) reasoning with the child to explain why certain behaviours are prohibited.
D) use of verbal disapproval, ridicule, and withholding of affection.

Question 63

Which parental disciplinary strategy appears to be most effective in stimulating moral development?

A) Power assertion
B) Induction
C) Love withdrawal
D) The three styles are equally effective in stimulating moral development.

Question 64

Fearful, as opposed to fearless, children need a disciplinary style characterized by

A) power assertion techniques.
B) cooperation and responsiveness.
C) avoidance of power tactics.
D) assertive discipline.

Question 65

Sarah is constantly disobeying her mother when they go to the store. To make her behave, her mother spanks her in front of everyone. According to the text, which type of parental discipline is being employed in the above example?

A) Power assertion
B) Love withdrawal
C) Induction
D) Conduction

Question 66

Maya has just been caught lying to one of her sisters. Her father takes her aside and explains to her why such behaviours are not acceptable and tells her that she has broken her sister's trust in her. According to the text, which type of parental discipline is being employed in the above example?

A) Power assertion
B) Love withdrawal
C) Induction
D) Conduction

Question 67

When making sense of the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behaviour,

A) Piaget argued that since thought follows from action, children's behaviour may be more advanced than their thinking.
B) Piaget argued that since thought precedes action, children's behaviour may be less advanced than their thinking.
C) Kohlberg believed that moral thought and behaviour should be inconsistent.
D) Kohlberg believed that moral thought and behaviour should be consistent in certain circumstances.

Question 68

Researchers interested in prosocial behaviour study

A) socially desirable behaviours such as sharing, helping, and cooperating.
B) socially undesirable behaviours such as physical and verbal aggression.
C) how social policies regarding parental leave, tax credits for families with children, and unemployment services promote family health.
D) what factors influence the popularity of social children.

Question 69

How does empathy differ from sympathy?

A) Empathy involves feeling concern for another in reaction to his or her situation or emotional state, without necessarily sharing the same emotions.
B) Sympathy involves feeling concern for another in reaction to his or her situation or emotional state, without necessarily sharing the same emotions.
C) Empathy and sympathy are essentially the same thing.
D) Empathy is a moral emotion, whereas sympathy is not.

Question 70

Hoffman developed a six-stage model of the development of empathy. Which of the following alternatives is a more mature level of empathy than the others?

A) Responding to someone else's distress by sucking one's own thumb
B) Crying when one hears other infants crying
C) Recognizing that a sibling is distressed and choosing to add to the distress
D) Empathizing with the homeless

Question 71

Tommy's mother tripped and hurt her knee. Tears came to her eyes and she briefly cried. Seeing her pain, Tommy tried to comfort her by offering her his "blankie" to hold. Tommy's behaviour is characteristic of which stage of Hoffman's six-stage model of the development of empathy?

A) Stage 1
B) Stage 2
C) Stage 3
D) Stage 4

Question 72

Which of the following can be viewed as a precursor to empathy that can be seen during the first few months of life?

A) Reflexively crying upon hearing the cries of other infants
B) Crying upon hearing an infant's own tape-recorded crying
C) Offering the child's own soother to another infant who is crying
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 73

Logan sees his best friend crying because he has hurt his finger. Upon seeing his friend's distress, he begins sucking his thumb. Logan's behaviour is characteristic of which stage of Hoffman's six-stage model of the development of empathy?

A) Stage 1
B) Stage 2
C) Stage 3
D) Stage 4

Question 74

The belief that children can display prosocial behaviour before they are able to perceive a situation from another's perspective or experience empathy is supported by evidence that

A) babies cry when they hear the crying of other babies, but not when they hear recordings of their own crying.
B) toddlers are eager to help their parents perform household chores.
C) infants are willing to share toys with their parents.
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 75

Hastings, Utendale, and Sullivan (2007) have reported that preschoolers

A) show levels of concern towards parents that they do not tend to show towards peers.
B) show levels of concern towards strangers that they do not tend to show towards parents.
C) who show unselfish concern for others tend to receive similar concern from their peers.
D) both a and c.

Question 76

From among the following, who is most likely to help their mother clean up the house?

A) Billy, 3 years old
B) Lisa, 5 years old
C) Kylie, 8 years old
D) Anna, 11 years old

Question 77

When faced with conflict, young adults favour __________ and children favour __________.

A) negotiation; disengagement
B) negotiation; coercion
C) coercion; disengagement
D) coercion; negotiation

Question 78

When faced with a conflict, adolescents tend to favour ___________, whereas they employ both ___________ and __________ less often.

A) negotiation; coercion; disengagement
B) coercion; negotiation; disengagement
C) disengagement; coercion; negotiation
D) peacemaking; coercion; disengagement

Question 79

The ability to negotiate is related to

A) increased verbal abilities.
B) increased understanding of mental and emotional states.
C) increased self-regulatory capacities.
D) All of the alternatives are correct.

Question 80

A longitudinal study followed two groups of children for ten years. As toddlers, group A displayed more personal distress, empathy, and other expressions of concern than group B. Ten years later, group A was more kind and considerate than group B. Based on research presented in the text, group A is probably

A) female.
B) non-Canadian.
C) male.
D) insecurely attached.