Deck 7: Thought and Language

Question 1

Manipulating mental representations for a purpose is called:

A) thinking
B) purposeful cognition
C) functional cognitive processing
D) intentional reasoning

Answer 1

thinking

Question 2

Which of these is an example of manipulating representations?

A) knowing if your car will fit in a particular parking spot.
B) sniffing a bottle of milk and deciding it is spoiled.
C) harmonizing while singing along with the radio.
D) all of the above.

Answer 2

all of the above.

Question 3

Mental models:

A) may be simple or complex
B) often include visual elements
C) always include visual descriptions of the relations among elements
D) all of the above

Answer 3

all of the above

Question 4

According to your textbook, when people imagine an object, such as a rotated capital R, and then determine if it is merely rotated or also shown in mirror image, people are able to

A) identify symmetrical letters such as M or O better than asymmetrical letters such as K or R
B) visualize items that have few geometric units, but not more complex shapes
C) rotate the object consciously but not implicitly
D) mentally rotate a mental image to determine the answer.

Question 5

Mental models are representations that _____ the way things work.

A) explain
B) predict
C) describe
D) all of the above

Question 6

A child's concept of what an airplane is, or an auto mechanic's understanding of what that rattle in the engine might be are examples of .

A) algorithmic reasoning
B) implicit learning
C) inductive logic
D) mental models

Question 7

According to the textbook, before people can think about an object, they must:

A) define its features
B) classify it
C) determine its functionality
D) determine the relation between it and all stored prototypes

Question 8

Groupings based on common properties are called:

A) cognition
B) mental representations
C) categories
D) prototypes

Question 9

A mental representation of a grouping of objects, ideas, or events that share common properties is called a:

A) concept
B) category
C) prototype
D) hierarchy

Question 10

If I take all the students in my class and I separate or group them based on their grades (A, B, C, etc.), then I have:

A) conceptualized them
B) created the prototypical student
C) categorized them
D) created functional discontinuities

Question 11

If I say that the essential and necessary features of ìcatsî are that they have fur, whiskers, four legs, a tail, and meow, then I have used which of the following?

A) defining features
B) prototypes
C) veridical characterization
D) all of the above

Question 12

A triangle has clear properties that set it aside from other shapes. A shape either is a triangle or is not. Thus, a triangle represents a

A) well defined concept
B) prototype
C) veridical characterization
D) mental model

Question 13

There are many problems with using defining features to categorize. Which is NOT one of those problems?

A) most everyday concepts are not easily defined
B) consulting a list of defining features is a slow process
C) people tend to judge on similarity and not feature lists
D) all of the above

Question 14

People are known to categorize people, objects, and events. It is believed that this feat is NOT accomplished by way of:

A) defining features
B) prototypes
C) veridical characterization
D) all of the above

Question 15

People are known to categorize people, objects, and events so quickly that they probably are not comparing to the defining features. Instead they are probably making use of:

A) implicit learning
B) deductive reasoning
C) similarity
D) all of the above

Question 16

A platypus is considered a mammal. It lays eggs, nurses its young without mammary glands, and is covered with fur. People are probably relatively __________ to identify a Platypus as a mammal because:

A) slow; the availability heuristic makes this decision difficult
B) quick; the iconic representation of a platypus is similar to the category exemplar
C) slow; it is not very similar to the prototype for the category "mammal"
D) quick; the unusual nature makes a strong association in memory

Question 17

What does the "beauty-in-averageness effect" refer to?

A) Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
B) People find prototypes more attractive than non-prototypes.
C) Most people choose mates who are about as attractive as they are.
D) The average person gives higher ratings to good looking people.

Question 18

Categorization by prototypes:

A) is done by shape on visual tasks
B) is done by characteristic features when judging similarity verbally
C) requires both visual information and information about characteristic features for most concepts
D) involves all of the above

Question 19

A particularly good example of a category is called a(n):

A) concept
B) defining feature
C) exemplar
D) leader

Question 20

The broadest most inclusive level at which objects share common attributes that are distinctive of the concept refers to the _____ level of categorization.

A) simple
B) ordinate
C) basic
D) none of the above

Question 21

The _____ level of categorization is below the basic level and is the level in which members of a category share specific attributes.

A) simple
B) ordinate
C) hypoordinate
D) subordinate

Question 22

The abstract level in which members of a category share few common features is the _____ level.

A) simple
B) superordinate
C) hypoordinate
D) hyperordinate

Question 23

What relationship does motorcycle have to vehicle?

A) simple
B) superordinate
C) hyperordinate
D) subordinate

Question 24

The metaphors people often use tend to be mapped to the _____ level of categorization.

A) basic
B) superordinate
C) subordinate
D) hyperordinate

Question 25

As you well know, numerous psychologists believe that behavior and physiology are linked. Which one is true with regard to categorization?

A) No link has been shown between the level of categorization and particular brain parts
B) Superordinate categorization is thought to occur in the left prefrontal cortex whereas categorization at the subordinate level occurs in the right prefrontal cortex
C) Superordinate categorization is thought to occur in the temporal cortex whereas categorization at the subordinate level occurs in the right occipital cortex
D) Superordinate categorization is thought to occur in the left hemisphere whereas categorization at the subordinate level occurs in the right hemisphere cortex

Question 26

The use of specific terms to categorize at the basic level is thought to be affected by:

A) a person's knowledge
B) culture
C) the situation
D) all of the above

Question 27

The example of the Australian aborigines grouping women, fire, and dangerous things into a single category was meant to show:

A) the differences that exist between males and females
B) how categorical definitions have changed over time
C) the extent to which an agrarian society is affected by slow changes in language development
D) the effect of culture on categorization

Question 28

When comparing college students from New Mexico to Manu farmers from Africa, it was found that:

A) college students could sort geometric shapes better than the Manu farmers
B) the Manu farmers were better than the college students at sorting different types of rice
C) Western subjects were faster than the Manu on both tasks
D) all of the above were found

Question 29

With regard to the extent to which culture influences the categorization of objects, it can be said that:

A) East Asians tend to use exemplar- and prototype-based categorization while North Americans tend to look for rules
B) Americans and East Asians are comparable and perform at equivalent levels and using comparable processes/methods
C) both East Asians and North Americans rely primarily on rules and secondarily on defining features
D) none of the above

Question 30

The process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs is called:

A) thinking
B) cognition
C) reasoning
D) contemplation

Question 31

Which of the following types of reasoning is based on the use of specific observations to generate propositions?

A) deductive
B) inductive
C) logical
D) analogic

Question 32

I notice that those students who arrive to class at least ten minutes before the class officially begins perform much better than those who arrive late. I conclude that grades are influenced by the time of arrival. I have used:

A) deductive reasoning
B) inductive reasoning
C) logical reasoning
D) reasoning by analogy

Question 33

It is possible to reason, at the start, with an idea rather than an observation. This is:

A) deductive reasoning
B) inductive reasoning
C) logical reasoning
D) reasoning by analogy

Question 34

A syllogism is a form of:

A) inductive reasoning
B) deductive reasoning
C) illogical reasoning
D) independent reasoning

Question 35

The authors of your textbook raise the question, "Are deduction and induction really distinct processes?" Their answer is:

A) yes, because the left hemisphere appears to evaluate the ìpureî logic while the right hemisphere responds to content
B) yes, because CT scans have revealed that the two types of reasoning processes activate two different areas of the brain
C) no, damage to the area of the brain referred to as the prefrontal cortex causes deficiencies in both deductive and inductive reasoning
D) scientists don't yet have an answer to this question

Question 36

The process by which people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one is called _____ reasoning.

A) experiential
B) analogical
C) deductive
D) inductive

Question 37

Reasoning is thought to take many forms. Which one is NOT a form of reasoning?

A) inductive
B) deductive
C) analogy
D) phenomenologic

Question 38

If I have the ability to categorize novel situations, to make inferences, and to solve problems, then I have demonstrated my ability to use:

A) deductive reasoning
B) inductive reasoning
C) logical reasoning
D) reasoning by analogy

Question 39

Those who argue that the United States should get out of Iraq before it becomes "another Vietnam" are engaging in:

A) problem solving
B) reasoning by analogy
C) inductive reasoning
D) deductive reasoning

Question 40

In order to correctly and accurately use analogical reasoning:

A) the familiar situation and the novel situation must each contain a system of elements that can be mapped onto one another
B) the two situations should literally match one another
C) the elements of the two situations must relate to each other but need not explain how the elements of the novel situation are related
D) all of the above

Question 41

The process of transforming one situation into another in order to meet a goal is called:

A) functionalization
B) problem-solving
C) cognitizing
D) intentionalism

Question 42

To move from the initial state to a goal requires the use of:

A) operators
B) motivation
C) intention
D) actualizers

Question 43

What MUST be known to consider a problem well defined?

A) the initial state
B) the goal state
C) the operators
D) all of the above

Question 44

In order for me to solve my homework, I have to work out a word problem. I have to determine how much fence the farmer will need to surround a particular field and I am given the dimensions. I have a(an):

A) well-defined problem
B) ill-defined problem
C) implicit learning situation
D) analogy

Question 45

In order to for me to save enough money for a very nice vacation, I have considered how much I have in my bank account and have devised a plan for saving much more money each week. I figure that if I stick to my plan for the next two years, I'll have enough money to go on that vacation. I have a(an):

A) well-defined problem
B) ill-defined problem
C) heuristic
D) algorithm

Question 46

What must be lacking in order for a problem to be considered ill-defined?

A) an initial state
B) a clearly defined goal state
C) the operators
D) both b and c

Question 47

As a teacher, I am always trying to find a way of getting my students to learn more. This problem is:

A) well-defined
B) ill-defined
C) a heuristic
D) an algorithm

Question 48

Problems can be defined or categorized as:

A) well-defined and ill-defined
B) ill-defined and heuristic
C) heuristic and algorithm
D) well-defined and algorithm

Question 49

In problem solving, sub-goals are defined as:

A) goals of lesser importance than the broader goal
B) goals unrelated to the broader goal
C) mini-goals on the way to achieving the broader goal
D) goals that are automatically achieved as a result of achieving the broader goal

Question 50

As can easily be imagined, solving a problem requires a number of steps or processes. Which one of the following is NOT a step in problem solving?

A) compare initial and goal states
B) identify and apply operators
C) accomplish all subgoals
D) eliminate differences between the initial state and the goal state

Question 51

Rather than trying every single operator to solve a problem, humans have been found to make use of:

A) problem solving strategies
B) well-defined goals
C) maximal operator efficiency
D) optimal operator efficacy

Question 52

Systematic procedures that inevitably produce a solution to a problem are called:

A) formulas
B) algorithms
C) mental simulations
D) hypothesis tests

Question 53

I have written a computer program to play chess. The program examines every possible play given the current arrangement of pieces on the board. My program solves problems by using :

A) implicit learning
B) algorithms
C) mental models
D) deductive reasoning

Question 54

Algorithms are best for problems that:

A) are open-ended
B) have considerable complexity
C) have a solution
D) require mathematics

Question 55

Imagining the steps involved in solving a problem mentally before actually undertaking them is known as

A) inductive reasoning
B) reductive reasoning
C) mental simulations
D) inefficient reasoning

Question 56

For mental simulations to be most beneficial, the individual should be sure to

A) use reasonable goals
B) focus on errors and how to overcome them
C) visualize in detail the steps involved in achieving a success
D) focus on emotions and how each action makes them feel

Question 57

I am trying to figure out the best way to end a relationship. I imagine many different ways of starting the topic and I think of everything that I want to say. In short, I imagine the entire conversation. This is an example of:

A) problem solving through mini-goal planning and implementation
B) the use of mental simulation
C) imaginative planning
D) implicit problem-solving

Question 58

There are numerous problem-solving strategies. Which is NOT one of them?

A) algorithms
B) mental simulation
C) functional fixedness
D) none; all are problem-solving strategies

Question 59

In terms of performance, an experiment by Taylor et al. (1998) revealed that mental simulation had which one of the following effects?

A) mentally simulating how to achieve a high score on an exam had no effect on grade
B) mentally simulating how to achieve a high score was as effective as simply imagining that you had earned a high score
C) mentally simulating how to achieve a high score resulted in a higher grade than if you visualized nothing, and visualizing nothing was better than if you just visualized receiving a high score
D) visualizing nothing and just imagining receiving a high grade resulted in comparable performance

Question 60

The tendency for people to ignore other possible functions of an object when they have a specific function in mind is called:

A) confirmation bias
B) functional fixedness
C) problem-solving invariance
D) self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 61

The fact that prison inmates are capable of creating deadly weapons out of seemingly non-offensive objects suggests that they must NOT be using:

A) previous experience
B) functional fixedness
C) problem-solving invariance
D) heuristics

Question 62

The tendency for people to search for proof for what they already believe is referred to as:

A) confirmation bias
B) functional fixedness
C) problem solving invariance
D) self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 63

Confirmation bias:

A) is the tendency to observe things that disagree with other's views
B) is the tendency for people to search for information that confirms their expectations.
C) involves the process of re-checking your data
D) all of the above

Question 64

Dr. Brimley is interested in the effects of eating oatmeal on cholesterol levels. He is pleased to find that participants in his study who ate oatmeal were able to significantly lower their cholesterol levels. He concludes that the oatmeal that they ate was responsible for the reductions in cholesterol. He does not consider other explanations, such as that the effect might be caused by his participants' NOT eating their usual bacon and eggs every morning. Dr. Brimley may be using

A) inductive reasoning
B) reductive hypothesis testing
C) confirmation bias
D) framing

Question 65

A friend believes that "7" is a Holy number. He tells me that he finds the number 7 in numerous parts of his life. For example, at lunch he was given 7 onion rings with his sandwich. My friend is displaying:

A) confirmation bias
B) functional fixedness
C) problem solving invariance
D) self-fulfilling prophecies

Question 66

If scientists suffer from confirmation bias, then which one of the following statements must be true?

A) scientists adhere to a fairly strict methodology
B) science tries to be entirely objective and attempts to minimize subjectiveness
C) scientists tend to design experiments that support their ideas
D) all of the above

Question 67

Which of the following statements about solving problems with numbers is NOT true?

A) it involves both working memory and long-term memory.
B) humans are not alone in the need to solve number problems.
C) only humans can count.
D) rats can learn to count the correct number of responses needed to receive reinforcement.

Question 68

An individual who weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice is displaying:

A) confirmation bias
B) decision making
C) a computative heuristic
D) a calculative algorithm

Question 69

I cannot decide whether to go to a movie or to do some work. I really need to get some work done since I am facing a deadline. However, I have been dying to see a particular movie for the longest time and I'm afraid it will soon be out of the movie theaters. I am showing:

A) confirmation bias
B) decision making
C) a computative heuristic
D) a calculative algorithm

Question 70

According to the authors of your textbook, the information-processing model as proposed by Edwards and others suggests that, in decision making, people make use of:

A) the utility of the outcome
B) the probability of each outcome
C) neither a nor b
D) both a and b

Question 71

Utility in decision making refers to the:

A) functional nature of the event or act
B) estimated likelihood of an event occurring
C) value of the option to the individual
D) all of the above

Question 72

According to the information processing model of decision making, decisions are made as a result of:

A) finding the utility of each value
B) weighing the value of each outcome as well as the likelihood of each outcome occurring
C) determine the weighted utility value for each option
D) all of the above

Question 73

A combined measure of the importance of an attribute and the extent to which a given option satisfies it is called:

A) utility
B) decision making
C) expected utility
D) weighted utility value

Question 74

I really like this one house because of its proximity to work. I like another house because of the spaciousness of the rooms and the neighborhood it is in. I like yet another house because of the vast amount of natural light that the house gets as well as the fact that it was recently built. To make a decision as to which house to buy, I need to consider which one of the following?

A) utility value
B) probability
C) expected utility
D) weighted utility value

Question 75

A combined judgment of the weighted utility and the expected probability of obtaining that outcome is called:

A) utility
B) decision making
C) expected utility
D) weighted utility value

Question 76

In order to make a rational decision about which of several options to choose, you must compute the _____ value of each option and select the highest one.

A) utility
B) weighted utility
C) utility minus cost
D) expected utility

Question 77

As the likelihood that you can actually attain a desired object rises, so does the:

A) expected utility
B) rational action utility
C) utility value
D) all of the above

Question 78

I'm trying to decide which house to buy. I really, really like this one house that is up for auction. However, I'm not getting my hopes up since the chances are that someone will be willing to pay more than I can afford. This is an example of:

A) utility estimation
B) decision making
C) expected utility
D) weighted utility value

Question 79

A student is trying to decide whether to go to a party or to stay home and study. He decides that he might as well go to the party since he is unlikely to get the A that he needs to pass the class. He is making use of:

A) utility
B) decision making
C) expected utility
D) weighted utility value

Question 80

A model of problem solving or decision making should include a description of how people should act or behave. The way rational individuals should act is considered:

A) prospective
B) explicit cognition
C) descriptive
D) prescriptive