Deck 3: Classification and Diagnosis

Question 1

Mr. and Mrs. Davidson took their son to a psychologist who diagnosed him as conduct disordered. They decided to get a second opinion from another psychologist and were told their son was just going through a normal phase. This example reflects a problem of

A) lack of reliability.
B) categorical classification.
C) misinterpreting symptoms.
D) dimensional classification.
E) lack of validity.

Answer 1

lack of reliability.

Question 2

If a Learning Disability diagnosis is to have subtypes with predictive validity, then the subtypes might

A) be related to different symptom clusters.
B) be related to differential severity.
C) be related to worsening vs. stable course.
D) be based on different personality profiles.
E) be similar in their ability to predict symptoms of other disorders.

Answer 2

be related to worsening vs. stable course.

Question 3

A(n) __________ refers to the determination of the nature of an illness, while a(n) __________ refers to the procedure used to gather information necessary to identify the illness.

A) examination; investigation
B) assessment; diagnosis
C) medical examination; clinical interview
D) diagnosis; assessment
E) diagnostic system; classification system

Answer 3

diagnosis; assessment

Question 4

A clinical assessment could involve all of the following procedures EXCEPT

A) being asked questions about what is wrong with you.
B) having a CAT scan.
C) filling out the MMPI.
D) being told what illness you have.
E) interviews with the patient's family.

Question 5

Jennifer complains about a sore throat, aching muscles, lack of energy, and occasional dizziness. These __________ may help her doctor determine what is wrong with her.

A) symptoms
B) hallucinations
C) signs
D) problems
E) behaviours

Question 6

The textbook indicates that validity is the second criterion used to determine the usefulness of a diagnostic system. This is because

A) as long as a diagnostic system is reliable, it does not matter if it is valid.
B) if you don't have reliability, you cannot have validity.
C) reliability and validity are independent of one another.
D) a diagnostic tool that is reliable is also likely to have at least moderate validity.
E) validity is usually more important than reliability.

Question 7

A __________ diagnostic system is one that measures what it is supposed to measure, while a __________ diagnostic system results in the same result each time.

A) reliable; valid
B) predictive; sensitive
C) categorical; dimensional
D) sensitive; valid
E) valid; reliable

Question 8

Concurrent validity is concerned with the ability of a diagnostic category to

A) remove the traditional gender bias in diagnosis.
B) identify symptoms that may exist concurrently.
C) predict the symptoms that will co-occur over time.
D) be diagnosed / applied concurrently by two different clinicians.
E) estimate an individual's standing on non-symptoms attributes of the disorder.

Question 9

If there was a perfect relationship between a diagnosis of conduct disorder in early adolescence and a diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder in adulthood, this would be evidence for the __________ of the first diagnosis.

A) sensitivity
B) predictive validity
C) concurrent validity
D) interrater reliability
E) reliability

Question 10

Why has it been so difficult to develop the ideal system for classifying mental disorders?

A) treatments tend to be different for different disorders.
B) clinical psychologists tend not to use diagnostic systems for classification purposes.
C) it was easier to conduct scientific research in the past than it is now.
D) it is difficult to determine which aspects of behaviour are most important.
E) psychologists find it difficult to conduct structured interviews with patients.

Question 11

Validity in diagnosis is best conceptualized as

A) agreement between different clinicians on the diagnosis.
B) a diagnosis that makes sense based on the symptoms.
C) the ability to predict disorders accurately.
D) a discontinuous approach to classification of disorders.
E) a categorical classification of disorders.

Question 12

What was the most significant reason why the psychiatrists in the Beck et al. (1962) study found it difficult to agree?

A) Some psychiatrists were better at their job than others.
B) The patient did not give the same report to each psychiatrist.
C) Each psychiatrist diagnosed patients according to their own particular theories.
D) Different techniques were used to determine the diagnosis.
E) The diagnostic system did not adequately specify the signs and symptoms for the disorder(s).

Question 13

If the diagnostic category Conduct Disorder were to have subtypes that predict meeting vs. not meeting criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder in adulthood, then this would be evidence for_____________of the subtypes.

A) sensitivity
B) predictive validity
C) concurrent validity
D) interrater reliability
E) test-retest reliability

Question 14

A diagnostic system that predicted lower levels of education and socio-economic status for persons actually diagnosed with schizophrenia would be demonstrating _______________.

A) sensitivity
B) predictive validity
C) concurrent validity
D) stigmatization
E) reliability

Question 15

If the diagnostic category Autism Spectrum Disorder included information about the IQ or mental ability profiles commonly observed in persons with the diagnosis, then the diagnostic category would be said to have ______________.

A) predictive validity
B) concurrent validity
C) culture bias
D) test-retest reliability
E) inter-rater reliability

Question 16

The study in which Beck et al. (1962) examined the reliability of psychiatrists' diagnoses using the DSM-I indicated that

A) the validity of the study itself was quite low
B) most of the time, the psychiatrists agreed on diagnoses
C) inter-rater agreement was quite high for some disorders and lower for others
D) inter-rater agreement was lower than expected
E) it is pointless to have more than one psychiatrist examine the same patient.

Question 17

Two clinicians independently come up with the same diagnosis when examining a patient. This would demonstrate:

A) concurrent validity but not necessarily reliability
B) both interrater reliability and validity
C) validity but not interrater reliability
D) neither reliability nor validity
E) interrater reliability but not necessarily validity

Question 18

If a measure of substance abuse is able to determine which individuals will be only transient drug users, and which ones will go on to meet criteria for substance dependence or to abuse other drugs with more adverse health consequences, that measure would have

A) concurrent validity.
B) face validity.
C) etiological validity.
D) predictive validity.
E) measurement reliability.

Question 19

Which of the following scenarios is most similar to the concept of reliability in making a diagnosis?

A) You meet a guy at a party who appears to be a very shy person, but it turns out that once you get to know him, he's really talkative
B) You and your brother talk to several people and decide to take a trip to Florida.
C) Based on your brother's expensive and elaborate wardrobe, your friend concludes that he must be a little egocentric
D) Your brother is feeling quite ill, so you take his temperature and decide he has the flu
E) You and your brother go see the same movie with different people and both you and your brother think it had fantastic fight scenes.

Question 20

A good diagnostic system tries to do all of the following EXCEPT

A) identify the specific pattern of behaviors for each disorder
B) predict how the afflicted individual will behave in the future
C) identify why and when the individual began to display problem behaviors
D) predict treatment response
E) identify whether social, biological or psychological factors are important in understanding and treating the disorder

Question 21

Joseph is physically addicted to alcohol and he gets the "shakes," feels nauseated, and becomes anxious if he doesn't have a drink for a day or two. What category of disorder would he fit under, according to the DSM-IV-TR?

A) not enough information is provided to make a diagnosis
B) Mood disorder
C) alcoholism
D) General medical disorder (Axis III)
E) Substance-related disorder

Question 22

If Axis IV were excluded from the DSM-IV-TR, __________ would NOT be considered in the diagnosis.

A) depression
B) chronic back problems
C) physical abuse
D) histrionic personality disorder
E) heroin abuse

Question 23

All of the following areas would be considered under Axis V EXCEPT

A) severe arguments with family members.
B) suicidal behaviour.
C) unemployment.
D) failing a year in school.
E) articulation problems resulting from a speech disability.

Question 24

This disorder is caused by substance abuse or poor diet, as well as several medical conditions. Sufferers may display inattention and disconnected thoughts. They would most likely be diagnosed with

A) ADHD.
B) schizophrenia.
C) delirium.
D) dementia.
E) Amnestic syndrome.

Question 25

To determine how well a person is coping with his or her problems, a clinician consulting the DSM-IV-TR would get this information with the __________.

A) ICD-10
B) Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS)
C) Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale
D) Assessment of Coping Measure (ACM)
E) MMPI

Question 26

The beginning of a modern system of classifying disorders can be attributed to

A) the American Psychological Association.
B) the Canadian Psychological Association.
C) DSM-I
D) the World Health Organization.
E) the American Psychiatric Association.

Question 27

The DSM-IV-TR requires that patients be evaluated along five separate dimensions. This is referred to as a

A) diagnostic classification.
B) psychological classification.
C) multiaxial classification.
D) dimensional classification.
E) theoretical classification.

Question 28

Krysta was attacked several months ago and thereafter developed recurrent panic attacks. Krysta is now afraid of suffering a panic attack and stays holed up in her apartment. Her friendships have suffered and she has not been to school in weeks. Using the DSM-IV-TR, how would you diagnose Krysta's problems?

A) Axis I: Panic Disorder; Axis II: dependent personality disorder; Axis IV: Psychosocial and Emotional Problem: physical attack
B) Axis I: Panic Attacks and Phobia; Axis III: Medical Conditions: injuries as a result of the physical attack
C) Axis I: no diagnosis; Axis II: Hermitism; Axis V: level of current functioning: impairment in social and occupational functioning
D) Axis I: Panic Disorder; Axis V: level of current functioning: impairment in social and occupational functioning.
E) Axis I: no diagnosis; Axis III: Medical Condition: Respiratory illness

Question 29

The DSM-III presented significant differences compared to its predecessors. Perhaps the MOST important change was

A) the fact that it included the number of symptoms required to meet the criterion.
B) the fact that is became more empirically-based.
C) that it required clinicians to consider five different areas of patient functioning.
D) that field trials were carried out to improve reliability.
E) the fact that it did not advocate any particular theory.

Question 30

The first two editions of the DSM were considered unsatisfactory classification systems due to all of the following EXCEPT

A) categories contained few objective criteria.
B) psychoanalytic theory was influential in developing the categories.
C) categories were not empirically-based.
D) descriptions were brief and vague.
E) the psychiatrists on the committee could not agree on the causes of disorders.

Question 31

What is the main reason for distinguishing between Axis I and Axis II in DSM-IV-TR?

A) to consider long-term disturbances
B) to ensure agreement between clinicians
C) to distinguish between psychological and medical problems
D) to make sure that every patient is also properly diagnosed with the correct personality disorder
E) to offer other interpretations of the disorder

Question 32

Your little brother constantly disobeys your parents, talks back to them, and refuses to acknowledge what they say. What DSM-IV-TR category would fit his symptoms?

A) Oppositional Defiant Disorder
B) Separation Anxiety Disorder
C) Disorders usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence
D) Adjustment Disorders
E) Conduct Disorder

Question 33

The International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death (ICD),

A) was and still is highly influenced by psychoanalytic theory.
B) is widely used in North America to diagnosis mental disorders.
C) was developed by the APA to classify abnormal behaviour.
D) is used mainly by physicians, while the DSM is used by psychologists.
E) is a listing of all diseases and mental disorders.

Question 34

Which of the following is NOT a category of disorder located under Axis I of the DSM-IV-TR?

A) Disorders first diagnosed in the elderly
B) Factitious disorder
C) Sleep disorders
D) Adjustment disorders
E) Anxiety disorders

Question 35

Learning disorders usually become apparent

A) during adolescence.
B) during childhood.
C) after psychological testing shows children to be learning disabled.
D) after age 18, because children learn at such different rates.
E) during the first few weeks of life.

Question 36

DSM-III was a better attempt at classification than earlier systems because it

A) took on a dimensional as opposed to a categorical approach.
B) it focused more strongly on the theoretical causes of various mental disorders.
C) was less rigid than previous approaches.
D) required clinicians to evaluate various aspects of the patients' lives.
E) it promoted a behavioural rather than a psychodynamic theoretical orientation.

Question 37

All of the following would be included on Axis I EXCEPT

A) Alcoholism.
B) Alzheimer's Disease.
C) Anoxeria Nervosa.
D) Obsessive-Ccompulsive Personality Disorder.
E) ADHD.

Question 38

Cindy's daughter recently died, and Cindy has been suffering from many problems lately. She feels very sad, has no appetite, and no energy or initiative to engage in any activities. If Cindy were to see a clinician, she would be given a diagnosis of

A) having a mood disorder.
B) major depressive disorder
C) schizophrenia.
D) a normal reaction to the situation.
E) bereavement disorder.

Question 39

The main feature of schizophrenia is

A) poor diet and substance abuse.
B) below average level of intelligence.
C) excessive fear, worry, and apprehension.
D) a marked loss of pleasure from usual activities.
E) a loss of contact with the world.

Question 40

David suffers from substance abuse difficulties and has recently learned that he has cancer. His clinician feels that the cancer has resulted in David's drinking more. Where, if at all, would his cancer be considered in the DSM-IV-TR?

A) Axis I
B) Axis III
C) Axis IV
D) It would not be included in the DSM-IV
E) Axis V

Question 41

Which pair of disorders and categories do not match?

A) pain disorder : somatoform disorders
B) social phobia : anxiety disorders
C) hypochondriasis : somatoform disorders
D) bereavement disorder : mood disorders
E) depersonalization disorder : dissociative disorders

Question 42

With regard to Dyslexia in DSM-5, the text indicates that removing the criterion of a gap between IQ and reading achievement will improve the __________ of diagnosis. It could be argued that this change may negatively affect the ___________ of the diagnosis.

A) validity; reliability
B) reliability; validity
C) sensitivity; accuracy
D) accuracy; sensitivity
E) specificity; sensitivity

Question 43

If a person's medical illness appears to be in part psychological the diagnosis is

A) somatoform disorder.
B) fictitious disorder.
C) psychophysiological disorder.
D) psychological factors affecting physical condition.
E) psychosomatic disorder.

Question 44

All of the following symptoms may indicate the presence of an anxiety disorder EXCEPT

A) delusions.
B) avoidance.
C) fear.
D) apprehension.
E) worry.

Question 45

The dissociative disorder involving two or more distinct personality states is known as

A) Dissociative fugue.
B) Depersonalization disorder.
C) Dissociative amnesia.
D) Dissociative identity disorder.
E) Identity amnesia.

Question 46

In the text, evidence-based practice refers to

A) a particular method of treating delusions and hallucinations.
B) a general method of treatment that involves comparing thoughts to reality.
C) basing assessment and treatment upon the most current and valid research findings.
D) reducing theoretical propositions in the classification system.
E) a method for reducing diagnostic error.

Question 47

The term __________ refers to events which occur during sleep, while the term __________ refers to problems with sleeping.

A) sleepwalking disorder; sleep terror disorder
B) insomnias; hypersomnias
C) nightmares; insomnias
D) dyssomnias; parasomnias
E) parasomnias; dyssomnias

Question 48

According to the text, changing the title of Reading Disorder to Dyslexia serves which of the functions of a good diagnostic system?

A) Providing guidelines for financial support
B) Providing treatment recommendations
C) Prediction of natural development
D) Enhancing the interchange of information
E) Evidence-based practice

Question 49

Why is the categorical approach to classification problematic in the DSM?

A) Even if a person has all the symptoms of a disorder, they will not necessarily be diagnosed with a mental disorder.
B) There may not be enough categories to cover every disorder.
C) Too many people are classified as having a mental disorder.
D) Some people may have difficulties, but would not be diagnosed as disordered.
E) Not all people diagnosed with the same disorder behave the same way.

Question 50

If you were diagnosed by your psychologist as having an impulse control disorder, you would most likely engage in behaviours such as

A) compulsive drinking or eating.
B) destroying property and beating up others.
C) excessive Internet use.
D) excessive cleaning of your house.
E) engaging in huge spending sprees and excessive sexual behaviour.

Question 51

The text suggests that our current classification is categorical because

A) it is based on the medical model and a categorical approach to physical diseases.
B) categorical systems have better predictive validity than dimensional systems.
C) dimensional systems are not amenable to empirical study.
D) decisions to intervene in mental disorders are usually categorical.
E) symptom counts are related to outcome variables in a linear manner.

Question 52

The most important reason cited in the text for revising the DSM to DSM-5 is

A) to ensure that the most up-to-date terminology is used to describe disorders.
B) to ensure that classification is based upon the most current and valid research.
C) to promote selection of effective treatments.
D) to eliminate confusing symptom descriptors.
E) to reduce the overlap between disorder categories.

Question 53

Comorbidity between two disorders indicates that

A) there is some relationship between the disorders in that person.
B) the two disorders are independent of each other.
C) the two disorders require the same form of treatment.
D) the two disorders have the same cause.
E) the diagnostic system is poor, failing to include all the relevant criteria in each disorder.

Question 54

Mrs. Landin divided her class into two teams based on last names: everyone from A-L was on one team and everyone from M-Z was on the other team. This is an example of

A) reliable classification.
B) dimensional classification.
C) alphabetical classification.
D) categorical classification.
E) normative classification.

Question 55

Axis II of the DSM-IV-TR lists __________ distinct personality disorders.

A) two
B) four
C) six
D) ten
E) eight

Question 56

Jacob decides to measure three different coping strategies in a group of subjects. To do this, he has each subject fill out a questionnaire that contains statements about behaviours engaged in when faced with a stressful situation. Subjects must decide on a scale of 1 to 5 how often they engage in these behaviours. This is an example of

A) categorical classification.
B) dimensional classification.
C) measurement classification.
D) inter-rater classification.
E) behaviour classification.

Question 57

Sarah suffers from a social phobia, which causes her to feel depressed, lethargic, and hopeless. Recently, she has also been diagnosed with depression. This occurrence is referred to as __________.

A) multiple disorders
B) co-occurrence
C) double diagnosis
D) comorbidity
E) dissociative disorders

Question 58

Individuals who are overly preoccupied with an imagined defect in their appearance would be classified under what category in DSM-IV-TR?

A) gender identity disorders
B) somatoform disorders
C) factitious disorders
D) eating disorders
E) body dysmorphic disorder

Question 59

Which three categories are included in the "Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders" section of the DSM-IV-TR?

A) tranvestism, transexuality, and gender identity disorders
B) paraphilias, homosexuality, sexual dysfunction
C) sexual dysfunction, gender identity disorders, paraphilias
D) frigidity, sexual dysfunction, paraphilias
E) gynephilia, eroticism, transvestism

Question 60

Discrete classification refers to __________, while continuous classification is also called __________.

A) statistical classification; normative classification
B) categorical classification; dimensional classification
C) critical classification; current classification
D) dimensional classification; categorical classification
E) directional classification; bi-directional classification

Question 61

It is important that clinicians be more aware of cultural issues for all of the following reasons except

A) different cultural issues may influence the diagnosis.
B) North America is relatively multi-cultural.
C) certain syndromes appear only within a particular culture.
D) different cultural practices may be unusual to white North Americans, but are normal in the society in which they are found.
E) many clinicians now visit and diagnose patients in many different countries.

Question 62

Jody is a talented poet who suffers from auditory and visual hallucinations. Those who argue that Jody would be stigmatized if she were diagnosed as schizophrenic would argue that

A) the fact that she is a talented poet would be ignored.
B) she might unfairly be diagnosed as ill despite the fact that she is talented.
C) she might not be allowed to write her poetry in the hospital.
D) she might not be asked to participate in poetry readings because of her illness.
E) people would view her poems as the result of her illness.

Question 63

Personality disorders in the DSM are particularly problematic for women because

A) it is more difficult to be a women in society than it is to be a man.
B) women are seen as having more flawed personalities than men.
C) if women have a psychological problem, it is seen as part of their personality.
D) gender stereotypes are associated with many of the personality disorders.
E) more and more women are being diagnosed with traditionally "masculine" personality disorders.

Question 64

"Loss of information" as it pertains to diagnosis and as described in the text refers to

A) loss of information about unique individuals when diagnostic labels are applied.
B) loss of information resulting from selection of one assessment tool over another.
C) decline in relevance of a diagnosis over time.
D) failure to include all the important symptoms in the criteria for a disorder.
E) failure to diagnose comorbid conditions.

Question 65

According to the text, each of the following is an advantage of a dimensional approach to diagnosing mental disorder EXCEPT

A) it more adequately describes an individual's problems.
B) it recognizes the continuum from normal to abnormal.
C) it captures severity level.
D) it de-stigmatizes diagnosis.
E) it facilitates delivery of services to people who need it.

Question 66

Although the DSM-IV-TR stresses that cultural and social differences must be taken into account during assessment and diagnosis,

A) most diagnoses would remain the same, regardless of culture.
B) the psychiatric manuals written in different cultures should be made available here.
C) the specifics of the manual are determined mainly by individuals trained in the United States
D) very few cultures present their own unique syndromes
E) most clinicians ignore these differences and treat everyone the same

Question 67

A __________ approach to classification recognizes that a disorder may be mild or severe, while with a __________ approach, the disorder is either present or not.

A) categorical; dimensional
B) dimensional; categorical
C) discrete; continuous
D) reliable; valid
E) valid; reliable

Question 68

Rachel is a secretary at a large law firm, where she is treated with a lack of respect, then she goes home to her husband and children where she has to cook and clean while her husband watches T.V. Recently, Rachel was given antidepressants to treat her feelings of sadness and lack of self-worth. The most likely criticism of Rachel's diagnosis of depression would be

A) most women become depressed, so Rachel should not necessarily receive this diagnosis.
B) normal female behaviour is being medicalized.
C) Rachel is more likely suffering from generalized anxiety disorder.
D) anti-depressants aren't the best method to treat depression.
E) Rachel is facing many difficulties--perhaps changes in her life would remedy the situation.

Question 69

The correlation between IQ test scores and academic and career outcomes is weaker for indigenous children than children of other ethnic groups: this illustrates both ________ and limited __________ of IQ test scores for indigenous children.

A) sampling bias; concurrent validity
B) sampling bias; predictive validity
C) culture bias; concurrent validity
D) culture bias; predictive validity
E) culture bias; face validity

Question 70

Elma is from the Philippines, and she claims that she sees the spirits of dead on different occasions, as do other individuals in her culture. It would be important to consider culture in this diagnosis because she could be suffering from

A) perhaps nothing - these beliefs could be normal in this culture.
B) schizophrenia.
C) hauntings.
D) some type of psychosis.
E) the use of hallucinogens.

Question 71

Rosenhan's (1973) study of pseudo-patients in psychiatric hospitals illustrates

A) that diagnosis can be influenced, if not determined by choice of assessment measures.
B) that behavior is misinterpreted when seen through the lens of a psychiatric diagnosis.
C) that hallucinations can be shaped by the questions of the interviewing clinician.
D) why structured interviews are preferred over unstructured ones.
E) that failure to make a diagnosis can have serious consequences.

Question 72

Research has found that members of African-American and Hispanic populations showing emotional disturbances are more likely than Caucasians to be diagnosed as schizophrenic. This illustrates

A) cultural biases.
B) interrater reliability.
C) misinterpretation of symptoms.
D) stigmatization.
E) racism.

Question 73

The most important reason for there being concern regarding ties between special interest groups and the development of the DSM is

A) the need for a diagnostic system that is purely descriptive.
B) the need to move away from the medical model.
C) the need for the DSM to remain value free.
D) the need for a DSM that serves agreed-upon functions and values.
E) the need to maximize predictive validity in the DSM.

Question 74

It is hoped that DSM-5 will have improved clinical utility. Each of the following is an example of improved clinical utility EXCEPT

A) improved communication of important clinical information to patients/families.
B) improved prediction of the course of a disorder.
C) improved communication of information to other health care providers.
D) improved reliability of the diagnostic questionnaires.
E) improved ability to select effective interventions.

Question 75

Why has it been proposed that a dimensional approach to classification should be adopted in the DSM?

A) People who need help may not be receiving it because they fall short of diagnostic criteria.
B) There are too few categories to cover every possible disorder.
C) Either people have a mental disorder or they do not.
D) Stigmatization occurs far too often when people are categorized.
E) Clinicians would find it much easier to agree on who should receive a diagnosis and who should not.

Question 76

Why do some professionals argue that current classification systems are flawed because of their adherence to the medical model?

A) Medical illnesses cannot yet be classified.
B) Little evidence supports the notion that there are unconscious causes of disorder.
C) No mental disorders are caused by medical difficulties.
D) Many professionals do not subscribe to the medical model.
E) It is next to impossible to classify someone with a disorder due to comorbidity.

Question 77

Taijin kyofusho is a syndrome found only in Japan, which

A) concerns of being embarrassed.
B) is often mistaken for social phobia.
C) concerns a fear of embarrassing others.
D) affects mainly Japanese women.
E) is usually caused by poor diet.

Question 78

The 2002 Health Canada Report on Mental Illness concludes that

A) approximately one in five Canadians will experience a mental illness in their lifetime.
B) approximately one in ten Canadians will experience a mental illness in their lifetime.
C) approximately 5 percent of the population will experience a mental illness in their lifetime.
D) approximately 5 percent of the population will experience a mental disorder in a one year period.
E) mental illness is the leading cause of disability and premature death in Canada.

Question 79

What might women's groups see as the main problem with the diagnostic categories of the DSM?

A) Many behaviors associated with being female are viewed as indicative of poor mental health.
B) Important traits are ignored once a person is diagnosed with an illness.
C) The diagnostic categories are based on the medical model.
D) Diagnoses of mental disorders are based on a discrete approach to classification of mental disorders.
E) Women are often stigmatized to a greater degree.

Question 80

A defense of retaining some aspects of the medical model is provided by Wakefield (1992), who states:

A) some physical illnesses are diagnosed on the basis of associated dysfunction alone; in the future we will acquire more knowledge about physical correlates of mental disorders.
B) psychological symptoms invariably have physical processes which are causal.
C) decisions to intervene or not must be made on a categorical basis; serious mental illness requires professionals to think like doctors.
D) reliability will be improved by focusing on the underlying physical processes responsible for mental disorders.
E) at this point the most effective interventions are pharmacological.