Deck 6: Gendered Identities: Childhood and Adolescence

Question 1

Jamal's father is mowing their home lawn. Jamal excitedly starts mowing the lawn with his toy lawn mower, which he had received for his birthday. In this scenario, Jamal has learned through

A) speech.
B) biology.
C) cognition.
D) observation.

Answer 1

observation.

Question 2

________ uses a cognitive approach to explain gender typing.

A) Observational learning theory
B) Social learning theory
C) Gestalt theory
D) Gender schema theory

Answer 2

Gender schema theory

Question 3

Which of the following leads to selective attention and selective memory?

A) gender constancy
B) gender schemas
C) imitation
D) relational aggression

Answer 3

gender schemas

Question 4

According to Albert Bandura's (1965) study, in which of the following situations were children most likely to imitate aggressive behavior?

A) when the adult model was rewarded
B) when the adult model was punished
C) when no specific consequences followed
D) None of these answers is correct.

Question 5

Unlike gender-aschematic individuals, gender-schematic individuals ________.

A) have poorly developed gender schemas and rely more on other schemas
B) rely on a well-developed gender schema spontaneously in making sense of the world
C) are highly likely to choose stereotype-inconsistent career options
D) are highly unlikely to learn about femininity and masculinity from their social class, ethnic group, and family composition

Question 6

Which of the following superstitious methods is most likely to help determine a future baby's sex?

A) If the mother "carries high," it is a boy; if she "carries low," it is a girl.
B) If the mother's complexion is pale, it is a boy; if the mother's complexion is "rosy," it is a girl.
C) If the fetus is active, moving and kicking a lot, it must be a boy; if the mother is sick, it's a girl.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 7

According to social learning theory, reinforcement can occur

A) whether or not an adult is deliberately trying to influence a child's behavior.
B) only when an adult is deliberately trying to influence a child's behavior.
C) only within a child's home.
D) only when an adult intends to teach a lesson about gender to a child.

Question 8

Learning gender-typed behavior is particularly easy for children when

A) they are exposed to adults other than their parents.
B) they have siblings.
C) parents set up gender-differentiated environments (e.g., bedrooms).
D) their parents are divorced.

Question 9

The idea that children learn gendered behavior from their environment comes from

A) psychodynamic theory.
B) humanistic theory.
C) social learning theory.
D) Gestalt theory.

Question 10

________ conceives of gender typing as a readiness to organize the world in terms of gender and to process information in terms of gender associations.

A) Observational learning theory
B) Social learning theory
C) Gestalt theory
D) Gender schema theory

Question 11

Kiara is a 5-year-old girl who stays with her grandparents and parents. In the context of gender schema theory, which of the following occupations is she most likely to choose when asked about what she would like to be when she grows up?

A) an investment banker, just like her grandfather
B) a mechanical engineer, just like her elder brother
C) a kindergarten teacher, just like her mother
D) a marketing manager, just like her father

Question 12

Once children know that they are, and always will be, one sex or the other, they try to ________ the societal expectations for people of their sex.

A) understand
B) match
C) avoid
D) explain

Question 13

A 2- or 3-year-old child can answer correctly when asked if he or she is a boy or a girl; however, the child may believe that

A) people other than himself or herself are asexual.
B) people can change sex by changing their hairstyles or clothing.
C) there is no reliable way to determine other people's sexes.
D) people can change sex by changing their hairstyles or clothing and there is no reliable way to determine other people's sexes.

Question 14

The understanding that gender is permanent is called

A) social learning.
B) observational learning.
C) gender constancy.
D) gender segregation.

Question 15

Martin and Halverson (1983) conducted an experiment in which 5- and 6-year-old children saw pictures of boys and girls doing stereotype-consistent activities and stereotype-inconsistent ones. Which of the following results was found when they tested the children's memory for the pictures a week later?

A) The children tended to misremember the stereotype-inconsistent pictures.
B) The children tended to forget the stereotype-consistent pictures.
C) The boys in the group were more likely than the girls to remember the pictures in which the girls performed stereotype-inconsistent activities.
D) The girls in the group were more likely than the boys to remember the pictures in which the boys performed stereotype-inconsistent activities.

Question 16

According to social learning theory, people learn their characteristic behavior patterns mainly through the process of

A) habituation.
B) reinforcement.
C) teleology.
D) entropy.

Question 17

In addition to learning through reinforcement, which of the following is most likely to help people learn?

A) imitation
B) talking
C) logic
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 18

Which of the following is revealed by meta-analyses of parental treatment of children?

A) Overall, parents treat children similarly across gender.
B) Mothers are likely to encourage gender-typed play and activities.
C) Fathers stereotype more than mothers.
D) No conclusions can be made.

Question 19

People who are ________ rely on schemas other than the gender schema.

A) gender-aschematic
B) gender-schematic
C) female-selective
D) relational

Question 20

Once children know that there are two gender categories and have developed a core gender identity, they pay more attention to ________ models than to ________ models.

A) same-gender; other-gender
B) preschool-aged; adult
C) gender-neutral; gender-typed
D) adult; gender-neutral

Question 21

In an Internet survey of 5,907 LGBT students aged 13 to 18 conducted by Mitchell et al. (2016), who among the following reported having been sexually harassed within the past year?

A) transgender youth
B) lesbian girls
C) genderqueer boys
D) bisexual girls

Question 22

According to Phillips (1998), ________ tend to tie their self-esteem to their weight and are least likely to feel attractive.

A) White girls
B) African American girls
C) Latina girls
D) Asian American girls

Question 23

Selective abortion of female fetuses

A) has been found only in China.
B) is consistent with societies that permit female infanticide.
C) is officially sanctioned in India.
D) is never practiced in the United States.

Question 24

In the context of peer influences, a study conducted by Zosuls et al. (2011) on elementary school kids' attitudes about their same-gender peers showed that

A) they are likely to choose children who have diverse and contrasting play styles.
B) they suffer from identity crises and gender dysphoria.
C) they have an ingroup bias and positive expectancies about ingroup interactions.
D) they are likely to be diagnosed with Turner syndrome.

Question 25

With undeniably gender-neutral toys, such as a bicycle, manufacturers

A) rely little on gender stereotypes.
B) create two versions-a pink, flower-trimmed bike with a wicker basket for girls and a black, heavy-duty BMX version for boys.
C) find ways to impose gender.
D) create two color versions and find ways to impose gender.

Question 26

Which of the following statements is true of cognitive theories?

A) They maintain that children are shaped by the people and environments they encounter in everyday life.
B) They emphasize the gradual development of a complex mental network about gender and its assimilation to the self.
C) They maintain that the gender schema is learned in early childhood and guides the individual in becoming gender typed.
D) They emphasize that a child's mind is actively trying to comprehend and categorize gender information.

Question 27

In a study of 7- to 10-year-old children in China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States, which asked the kids themselves to report on their use of both kinds of aggression, Lansford et al. (2012) found that in all nine countries

A) boys were more physically aggressive than girls.
B) boys were more likely than girls to use indirect, relational aggression.
C) there was a relatively small effect size for physical aggression in favor of boys.
D) there was a significantly large effect size for relational aggression in favor of boys.

Question 28

Which of the following methods suggests a preference for sons over daughters around the world?

A) neglect of baby girls
B) sex-selective abortion
C) female infanticide
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 29

Which of the following tendencies is a gender difference in play for children?

A) Boys play violent video games and girls play with Barbie dolls.
B) Children avoid "opposite-gender" toys during preschool and elementary years.
C) Children express strong preferences for gender-typed toys.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 30

Identify a true statement about the onset of menstruation, termed "menarche."

A) There is a great deal of consistency and predictability in its timing.
B) European American girls reach menarche earlier than African American girls do.
C) Latina girls reach menarche several months later than Asian American girls do.
D) It occurs at about 12½ years of age on average.

Question 31

Hostile acts that attempt to damage another person's close relationships or social standing are called

A) hostile aggression.
B) scapegoat aggression.
C) segregation aggression.
D) relational aggression.

Question 32

Which of the following is true of children and gender in the United States?

A) Parents are usually okay with the fact that they treat daughters and sons differently.
B) Children's understanding of gender changes progressively, as they grow older.
C) Male children are generally more valued than female children.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 33

Which of the following states the result of a study of 83 children's books published from 1995 to 1999?

A) Men were shown in a much greater variety of roles and occupations than women.
B) About half of the main characters were female.
C) No man was ever shown doing household chores.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 34

Which of the following terms refers to the act of stifling one's own feelings and thoughts in an effort to fit in and be seen as a nice girl?

A) self-silencing
B) self-debasement
C) self-efficacy
D) None of these answers is correct.

Question 35

Which of the following statements is true of the ways in which parents socialize babies and young children by talking to them?

A) In the toddler and preschool years, girls and boys get different kinds and amounts of talk about emotion.
B) During childhood, fathers' talk is more supportive and emotion-focused than mothers' talk.
C) In the early childhood years, mothers talk more to their sons than to their daughters.
D) Overall, fathers talk more to children than mothers do.

Question 36

In a longitudinal study that followed 587 White and Latina girls from the ages of 13 to 18, Impett et al. (2011) found that during the high school years, ________.

A) the interest in getting cosmetic surgery increased
B) self-esteem dropped
C) depressive symptoms increased
D) body objectification dropped

Question 37

In groups, girls tend to use ________, while boys rely more on ________.

A) cooperation and negotiation; competition and confrontation
B) cooperation; persuasion, competition, and negotiation
C) competition and persuasion; dominance and negotiation
D) teasing and scapegoating; persuasion and negotiation

Question 38

Jackson and Falmagne (2013) conducted in-depth interviews with 18- to 21-year-old American women who were asked to recall their menarche, and these women revealed that they were

A) usually excited about menstruation as a sign of good health and an affirmation of womanhood.
B) most likely to use euphemisms and indirect language to reference "it" around their fathers and brothers.
C) concerned with hiding, concealing, and managing menstruation, especially around boys.
D) uncomfortable admitting that they were menstruating except to complain about it to their male counterparts.

Question 39

In a three-generational study of college students, their mothers, and their grandmothers, Morgan (1998) found that a majority ________.

A) agreed to have given up their tomboy ways only after joining college
B) agreed to have given up their tomboy ways due to the physical changes of puberty
C) reported that they still liked active, adventurous play
D) reported that they were quiet during childhood due to social pressure to be more feminine

Question 40

Increased pressure to conform to gender roles beginning in early adolescence is called

A) maturation intensification.
B) gender intensification.
C) trafficking.
D) euphemistic role production.

Question 41

Compare and contrast social learning and cognitive development theories of gender development. Provide research examples to support your answer.

Question 42

Cite research evidence to show that ethnicity and class have an effect on gender stereotyping. What theories explain these results?

Question 43

If you decide to raise your child to be gender-aschematic, describe how you would go about it.

Question 44

What problems are associated with our society's lack of information and maintenance of an attitude of ignorance regarding menstruation?

Question 45

Cite evidence indicating that boys are "the preferred sex." How does this preference affect children?

Question 46

Why are girls at a disadvantage in mixed groups in terms of communication and persuasion?

Question 47

Although the gender-typing process is difficult to avoid, some females manage to resist it. Discuss the various ways in which a girl may attempt to resist the gender-typing process. Is this resistance detrimental to the girl's psychological well-being?

Question 48

Explain the cognitive developmental and gender schema theories of gender development that offer the intriguing idea that children willingly socialize themselves to be masculine or feminine.

Question 49

A child's socialization is affected not only by gender but also by other factors such as ethnicity and social class, and these may be intertwined. Briefly discuss this statement.

Question 50

Describe the ways in which children themselves maintain boundaries and uphold segregation between the sexes.

Question 51

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of being a "tomboy," and explain the process of gender intensification.

Question 52

What evidence exists to show that boys have more social status and power than girls?

Question 53

Summarize research on and the effects of the preference for sons in the U.S. and across other cultures.

Question 54

Describe the phenomenon of self-silencing that occurs in girls during adolescence. Contrast this phenomenon with relational authenticity.

Question 55

Describe in detail relevant psychological research on gender socialization of girls and boys from birth till 12 years of age. How does this prepare girls and boys for different adult roles? Can anyone "escape" this shaping?

Question 56

Describe gender segregation, explain why it happens, and how it affects both boys and girls. Include both positive and negative aspects of self-segregation.

Question 57

Do parents' ideologies about gender roles influence their children's behavior? Cite evidence to support your answer.

Question 58

Explain the ways in which you can teach a child to resist gender typing. Provide examples to support your answer.

Question 59

What kinds of conflicts do adolescent girls face regarding the messages they get from society about maturation versus attractiveness? How do most girls respond to these conflicts, and why do they have those responses?