Deck 3: Learning and Memory

Question 1

Which theory listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events?

A) behavioral learning
B) episodic learning
C) incidental learning
D) Gestalt learning

Answer 1

A

Question 2

If a woman gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume, she is more likely to keep buying the product and wearing it. What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the situation?

A) neutral reinforcement
B) positive reinforcement
C) negative reinforcement
D) symbolic reinforcement

Answer 2

B

Question 3

According to the theory of classical conditioning, ________ should be encouraged by promoting unique attributes of a well-established brand.

A) stimulus generalization
B) the halo effect
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction

Answer 3

C

Question 4

A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume that she wears. In learning terms, the stimulus-response connection has weakened. Which of the following processes best explains what has occurred in the example?

A) negative reinforcement
B) extinction
C) discrimination
D) generalization

Question 5

Determining the most effective reinforcement schedule to use with consumers is important to marketers. What type of reinforcement schedule is most likely being used when after a period of time has passed, the first response a consumer makes brings the reward?

A) fixed-interval reinforcement
B) variable-interval reinforcement
C) fixed-ratio reinforcement
D) variable-ratio reinforcement

Question 6

Stimulus generalization refers to ________.

A) the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature
B) the fact that most conditioned stimuli are similar to unconditioned stimuli
C) the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus (CS) to evoke similar, conditioned responses
D) the tendency for extinction to occur when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

Question 7

If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus, the association between the two will become weakened. This is called ________.

A) generalization
B) interference
C) the spacing effect
D) extinction

Question 8

A department store decides to use "secret shoppers" at unannounced times to test for service quality among its personnel. Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes. Which of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in this situation?

A) fixed-ratio reinforcement
B) fixed-interval reinforcement
C) variable-frequency reinforcement
D) variable-interval reinforcement

Question 9

________ was first demonstrated in experiments performed on dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.

A) Instrumental conditioning
B) Classical conditioning
C) Cognitive conditioning
D) Extinction conditioning

Question 10

Which of the following occurs when a customer learns that two products are different even though the packages of both products look similar?

A) extinction
B) brand equity
C) stimulus generalization
D) stimulus discrimination

Question 11

What mechanism is used when a consumer learns to perform responses that produce positive outcomes?

A) extinction
B) punishment
C) negative reinforcement
D) positive reinforcement

Question 12

Another name for instrumental conditioning is ________ conditioning.

A) operant
B) neo-classical
C) stimulus
D) reward

Question 13

Much learning takes effort and time, but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional. This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning.

A) stage one
B) subliminal
C) incidental
D) evoked

Question 14

Behavioral learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather, they look to external evidence to study learning. What aspects of the environment are of most concern to behaviorists in studying learning?

A) energy and work
B) stimulus and response
C) thought and memory
D) sensation and perception

Question 15

Family branding, licensing, and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on ________.

A) stimulus generalization
B) the spacing effect
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction

Question 16

The researcher and theorist most associated with instrumental conditioning is ________.

A) Pavlov
B) Skinner
C) Keller
D) Werner

Question 17

________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

A) Adjustment
B) Shaping
C) Reinforcement
D) Learning

Question 18

The ________ refers to the tendency people have to react to stimuli similar to an original stimulus in a classical conditioning situation in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus.

A) masking illusion
B) sensory memory
C) cueing effect
D) halo effect

Question 19

In instrumental conditioning, what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment?

A) There is no difference. They are two words for the same thing.
B) Negative reinforcement can occur when a stimulus is positive, and punishment occurs when a stimulus is painful.
C) Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome.
D) Negative reinforcement creates a preference for negative results, while punishment teaches people to avoid negative results.

Question 20

Classical conditioning takes place when a(n) ________ is continuously matched with a(n) ________.

A) conditioned stimulus; conditioned response
B) unconditioned response; conditioned response
C) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
D) unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response

Question 21

What type of learning theory emphasizes that people are problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment?

A) instrumental conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) cognitive learning
D) operant conditioning

Question 22

People tend to give "yes" responses to questions, regardless of what they are asked. This is an example of ________.

A) response bias
B) elaborative rehearsal
C) salience
D) nostalgia

Question 23

________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed.

A) Memory
B) Recognition
C) Comprehension
D) Attention

Question 24

Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall of the stimulus. This result is called the ________.

A) highlighting effect
B) von Restorff Effect
C) spacing effect
D) halo effect

Question 25

John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as "sit up," "roll over," and "fetch a stick." By systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way, John is able to accomplish great progress over a 30-day period. John was able to teach his dog using which of the following learning processes?

A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) stimulation conditioning
D) extinction conditioning

Question 26

Which of the following has occurred when a stimulus is able to evoke a weakened response years after the stimulus was first perceived?

A) spontaneous recovery
B) scripting
C) reverse extinction
D) response bias

Question 27

The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases; consumers are given rewards with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

A) rebate
B) discount
C) reward
D) frequency

Question 28

According to the information processing-approach to studying the memory process, in the ________ stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize it.

A) storage
B) retrieval
C) encoding
D) decoding

Question 29

Many marketers use "the good old days" as a common theme in promotional messages. This is a strategy of focusing on ________.

A) the highlighting effect
B) the halo effect
C) nostalgia
D) memory spikes

Question 30

Claudia Norman was a marketing consultant. She recommended that brand equity for a new environmentally-friendly product could be established by giving her initial customers free memberships in the Green Peace organization. Claudia used which of the following in her recommendation?

A) promotional conditioning
B) emotional learning
C) classical conditioning
D) instrumental conditioning

Question 31

Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that were very characteristic of the herbal market. One company broke with tradition and began to sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf. They were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional and very serious. Sales went through the roof. What form of stimulus generalization seems to be working for the herbal company?

A) masked branding
B) halo effect
C) continual reinforcement
D) shaping

Question 32

________ memory permits temporary storage of information we receive from our senses.

A) Elaborative
B) Sensory
C) Cognitive
D) Working

Question 33

Sam Bolton hums the Purina Cat Chow jingle as he drives down the expressway. A thought suddenly occurs to Sam: "Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff. In fact, I don't even have a cat." Sam knows this jingle through ________.

A) stimulus generalization
B) reinforcement modeling
C) incidental learning
D) operant conditioning

Question 34

Within a knowledge structure, which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge unit?

A) meaning
B) proposition
C) schema
D) script

Question 35

________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore, a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong.

A) Sensory
B) Episodic
C) Primary
D) Elaborative

Question 36

Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to explain the "black box" process and its connection with learning. He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls and his mouth begins to water. He looks around and sees a student in the last row bite into a big, juicy roll. "I wish I were sitting next to him," Frank thinks, "because I know I could steal a bite." What Frank just went through in class was similar to the "black box" process being described by his professor. This process is most closely associated with which of the following learning methods?

A) incidental learning
B) Gestalt learning
C) cognitive learning
D) behavioral learning

Question 37

________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors.

A) Observational
B) Reinforced
C) Halo effect
D) Masked

Question 38

A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus. Later, after the trainees have completed two months of training, the manger pays a bonus only for an actual sale. The manager is applying what process of instrumental conditioning to help the trainees be productive in their sales careers?

A) shaping
B) modeling
C) negative reinforcement
D) variable-ratio reinforcement

Question 39

In a typical ________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before.

A) recall
B) recognition
C) chunking
D) salience

Question 40

Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten) as we learn additional information. This displacement of information is called ________.

A) the highlighting effect
B) interference
C) decay
D) generalization

Question 41

Secret shoppers may be used by marketers to test the effectiveness of service quality among employees. This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement.

Question 42

Consumers' attraction to slot machines can be explained by the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule the machines use.

Question 43

Erika landed a job as an analyst for a small marketing research firm whose task was to observe and probe patient behaviors at a small Midwestern clinic. In her study, she noticed that many of the patients had a tendency to underestimate the time since their last doctor visit. The memory lapse she observed was due to a memory problem called ________.

A) omitting
B) averaging
C) telescoping
D) normalizing

Question 44

When Pavlov's famous dogs responded to a bell signaling feeding time, they were exhibiting what is called classical conditioning.

Question 45

Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.

Question 46

Which type of reinforcement best characterizes what an individual would typically experience while fishing?

A) fixed-interval reinforcement
B) variable-interval reinforcement
C) fixed-ratio reinforcement
D) mixed-ratio reinforcement

Question 47

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

Question 48

Samantha is passing down the cereal aisle when she spots a box of Life cereal featuring "Mikey" on box front. She remembers the taste of the cereal and how much fun she had talking to "Mikey" while she ate her cereal as a kid. She buys a box and leaves the cereal aisle without examining any other cereal products. What aspect of the retrieval process did Samantha use in her product search process?

A) salience
B) the von Restoff effect
C) the spacing effect
D) state-dependent retrieval

Question 49

Stimulus generalization can create a halo effect.

Question 50

As May-Lee considers her purchase of perfume, she shifts back and forth between thinking about claims made by the different brands, remembering ads she has seen, and considering her emotional responses to the various brands. Which of the following processes most accurately describes what May-Lee is going through?

A) spreading activation
B) advertising decay
C) polar parallels
D) scalar processing

Question 51

When a company engages in a "piggybacking strategy," it is hoping that customers will be able to discriminate between the company's product and a competitor's product.

Question 52

Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes.

Question 53

Melissa knows that when she goes to the dentist she must make an appointment, show up on time, bring proof of insurance, and have her teeth cleaned before any other dental services will be performed. With respect to her visit to the dentist, Melissa has learned a schema known as a(n) ________.

A) service script
B) evoked set
C) proposition
D) elaborative rehearsal

Question 54

According to the definition of learning, how could a researcher ever show that cognitive learning had taken place in a subject?

A) by removing the conditioned stimulus
B) by measuring a behavioral change that could directly be tied to a previous experience
C) by measuring the brainwave pattern of the subject
D) by relying upon an intuitive feel for the amount of learning the subject had experienced

Question 55

Scott thought of himself as a very successful marketer. He created a campaign with a product logo that was very popular and that customers associated with a quality product. It was so popular that in a few months, the logo began to appear almost everywhere. Instead of increasing sales of the product, the customer demand began to decrease as competitors' products became more successful. What characteristic of learning was ruining Scott's apparent success?

A) Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the CS, thus leading to extinction of the learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product, and the association with Scott's company.
B) Customers confused Scott's logo with the logo of Scott's competitors, making cognitive learning incomplete.
C) The logo produced only a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement that did not sustain sales, while Scott's competitor used a variable-ratio schedule.
D) Over time the logo became boring, and customers punished Scott's company by buying competitors' products as a type of revenge for their boredom.

Question 56

Behavioral theorists rely on internal mental states to explain learning.

Question 57

"It's time for the Christmas shopping list," thought Martha's mother, so she asked Martha for a quick list of her favorite perfumes. Martha gave her mother six names that were all her "favorite." This group constitutes Martha's ________ for perfume.

A) position set
B) activation set
C) rational set
D) evoked set

Question 58

On her first visit to China, Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at a market. She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections and then Jane copied their behavior. In this example, Jane used ________.

A) shaping
B) stimulus discrimination
C) modeling
D) stimulus generalization

Question 59

Susan Saurage picks and runs her focus groups carefully. She wants to make sure that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research purpose. As she is examining potential focus group candidates, she notices that three men and two women seem to provide "yes" answers regardless of what she asks them. They seem to want to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be "good subjects." If Susan follows prudent testing methodology, she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of the following biases?

A) neophyte bias
B) order bias
C) response bias
D) affinity bonding bias

Question 60

The two major approaches associated with behavioral learning theory are classical conditioning and observational learning.

Question 61

The spacing effect describes the tendency for consumers to more effectively recall printed material when the advertiser repeats the target item repeatedly in a short time period rather than periodically over a longer time span.

Question 62

Episodic memories are likely to become part of a person's long-term memory.

Question 63

The book Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking presents the argument that we often make snap judgments that result in superior decisions compared to those that we think about a lot because we rely on our "adaptive unconscious" to guide us.

Question 64

A free recall test of a sample of potential customers would involve showing ads one at a time and asking each respondent if she had seen it before.

Question 65

Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant) conditioning.

Question 66

When Shira was a young girl, her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above 90% on a test. Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.

Question 67

John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors. When the company began to build small yard tractors, it insisted on using the same logo on its small mowers as on its large tractors. John Deere was applying stimulus generalization through look-alike packaging.

Question 68

Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flyer programs are so successful.

Question 69

For modeling behavior to occur during observational learning, four conditions must be met. What are those conditions? Be specific in your description.

Question 70

One of the goals of successful marketing is to have potential customers think of the marketer's product whenever they try to remember products within a certain category. This remembered set of products is called an evoked set.

Question 71

The observational learning process begins with a step called motivation.

Question 72

Marketers assist in the process called elaborative rehearsal when they use catchy slogans or jingles to help consumers remember information about products or services.

Question 73

The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers' positive associations with an existing brand or company name. In this context, list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalization presented in the text.

Question 74

A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she bakes. The daughter has modeled her mother's behavior.

Question 75

Retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from long-term memory.

Question 76

Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios. This is an illustration of a stimulus-response connection.

Question 77

Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.

Question 78

The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e., frequency of price changes).

Question 79

The success of hybrid ads supports the idea that the viewing environment of a marketing message affects recall.

Question 80

Define the terms learning and incidental learning.