Deck 9: Metamemory

Question 1

The feeling that you are sure you can recall something, but it momentarily eludes you is considered:

A)a judgment of learning.
B)a remember-know judgment.
C)a judgment of temporary amnesia.
D)a tip-of-the-tongue state.

Answer 1

D

Question 2

Which of the following is false?

A)Tip-of-the-tongue states are often accompanied by partial retrieval of the target word.
B)Tip-of-the-tongue states predict later recall of the missing word.
C)Tip-of-the-tongue states occur more often in older adults.
D)Tip-of-the-tongue states do not occur in bilinguals because they have multiple semantic representations.

Answer 2

D

Question 3

Monitoring accuracy means that:

A)judgments of learning seldom related to study behaviors.
B)tip-of-the-tongue states only occurred for frequently rehearsed items.
C)our study behaviors are accurately predicted by the items we know are easy and difficult.
D)there is a correlation between our metacognitive judgments and our actual performance.

Answer 3

D

Question 4

Familiar cues can influence the strength of a feeling of knowing.This observation is consistent with which theory?

A)direct access theory
B)metacognitive inductive theory
C)inferential theory
D)the developmental metacognition matrix theory

Question 5

In Reder's game-show paradigm (Reder, 1987), participants must decide as quickly as possible if they know the answer.Using this paradigm, research has found that:

A)feeling of knowing is seldom accurate.
B)feeling of knowing occurs only after retrieval not before.
C)feeling-of-knowing judgments can occur faster than retrieval itself.
D)feeling-of-knowing judgments are accurate for semantic information, but not for episodic information.

Question 6

Feelings of knowing and tip-of-the-tongue states differ from judgments of learning because the former judgments:

A)concern metacognitive monitoring.
B)show inordinately high accuracy.
C)are more closely correlated with control behaviors.
D)are based on judgments at retrieval, not encoding.

Question 7

Direct access theories:

A)result in much higher recall scores.
B)explain feelings of knowing but are useless to explain post-answer confidence.
C)explain metacognitive monitoring but not control.
D)refer to the idea that the judgments we make are based on the same processes that allow us to remember in the first place.

Question 8

Metacognitive control is most similar to which concept?

A)metacognitive meditation.
B)self-regulation.
C)self-inflection.
D)episodic memory.

Question 9

Sharlene, while studying, assesses the items she has been studying to determine if she has, in fact, learned them.This process of assessment is called:

A)metacognitive monitoring.
B)metacognitive control.
C)implicit memory.
D)the labor-in-vain effect.

Question 10

Judgments of learning:

A)are feeling of knowing judgments made during a tip-of-the-tongue state.
B)are made during study and are predictions of future memory performance.
C)reflect our confidence that an answer-already given-is correct.
D)are of little value in memory improvement.

Question 11

Roscoe is appearing on a game show.If he remembers and answers a question right, he will win a large sum of money.Roscoe should:

A)not use metacognition as it has been shown to be inaccurate in the game-show paradigm.
B)employ metacognition strategies on answer he is unsure of by eliminating the incorrect answers that he knows are incorrect.
C)just guess and hope he gets lucky.
D)focus on how much money he might lose as this will relax him.

Question 12

An experiment finds that feelings of knowing are influenced by unconscious access of the unretrieved target.Which theory would this finding support?

A)direct access theory
B)metacognitive inductive theory
C)inferential theory
D)the developmental metacognition matrix theory

Question 13

Randolph chooses to study the easiest items because he wants to ensure he learns something and at least gets a C on the exam.Randolph's decision can be considered an example of:

A)metacognitive hypertrophy.
B)redirected active amnesia.
C)metacognitive control.
D)what happens when we exit the region of proximal learning.

Question 14

The tip-of-the-pen phenomenon refers to:

A)when tip-of-the-tongue states occur in sign language.
B)when Chinese writers know how to say a word, but do not know how to write the character.
C)when Japanese speakers cannot say a word that emanates from a foreign language.
D)when deaf individuals cannot remember the English word that means the same thing as a sign in American Sign Language.

Question 15

Which pattern do temporal-lobe amnesiacs show?

A)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs' feeling of knowing accuracy remains normal even though their memory performance declines.
B)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs' feeling of knowing accuracy declines even when their memory performance remains normal.
C)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs refuse to make feeling of knowing judgments.
D)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs' feeling of knowing accuracy declines and their memory performance declines.

Question 16

In Shimamura's studies on temporal-lobe amnesiacs and Korsakoff's amnesiacs, there were differences in the pattern of deficits in the two groups.How did the two groups differ with respect to feeling of knowing accuracy?

A)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs could not make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments, whereas the Korsakoff's amnesiacs could make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments.
B)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs could make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments, whereas the Korsakoff's amnesiacs could not make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments.
C)Temporal-lobe amnesiacs could not make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments, whereas the Korsakoff's amnesiacs could not make accurate judgments of learning.
D)Neither group could make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments.

Question 17

Ease-of-learning judgments refer to:

A)the division between metacognitive monitoring and control.
B)the feeling that an unrecalled item will be recalled soon.
C)estimates of how large an undetermined sum is.
D)estimates of how likely an item will be remembered in advance of actual studying and are predictions about how difficult that item will be to learn.

Question 18

Metacognition refers to:

A)our ability to deflect our emotions onto recollective experiences.
B)our knowledge and awareness of our own cognitive processes.
C)our accuracy at predicting scientific phenomena.
D)our ability to recollect earlier tip-of-the-tongue experiences.

Question 19

Evidence suggests that the neural mechanisms responsible for TOTs are found to be:

A)the medulla oblongata.
B)Wernicke's Area in the temporal lobe.
C)the transverse region in the parietal lobe.
D)regions in the pre-frontal lobe, such as the anterior cingulate.

Question 20

What effect does priming the cue in a cue-target pair has on the feeling of knowing?

A)It has no effect on feeling of knowing.
B)Feeling of knowing is higher for primed than unprimed items.
C)Feeling of knowing is lower for primed than unprimed items.
D)Priming increases accuracy, but lowers confidence.

Question 21

The "labor-in-vain" effect refers to:

A)the observation that participants will study more difficult items more than easy ones, but not enough to bridge the gap in recall between the two sets.
B)the observation that allocation of study time is not correlated with performance.
C)the observation that the hard work that goes into making JOLs should be redirected to actual study.
D)the observation that participants who tend to give inflated JOLs are also those with higher self-esteem.

Question 22

Studies linking TOTs and retrieval time show that:

A)when participants are experiencing TOTs, they spend more time trying to retrieve an unrecalled target.
B)when participants are experiencing TOTs, they know not to allocate retrieval time to that item.
C)JOLs and TOTs are really two aspects of the same metamemory continuum.
D)unlike JOLs, TOTs are not correlated with retrieval item.

Question 23

Factors that increase or decrease confidence as measured by JOLs are:

A)identical to those that cause the JOLs to be more or less accurate.
B)not of interest to research-only what causes the JOLs to be accurate is important.
C)similar to, but not identical to the factors that cause FOKs to increase or decrease.
D)required to be manipulated in all experiments that examine JOLs.

Question 24

Although judgments of learning are accurate at discriminating difficult and easy items, it is also the case that:

A)people's judgments of learning are not influenced by the font size of text.
B)people's judgments of learning underestimate the effect of learning over multiple trials.
C)people's judgments of learning are not correlated with any control decisions.
D)people's judgments of learning overestimate the influence of forgetting.

Question 25

The region of proximal learning meAnswer:

A)that it is more adaptive to study in the same geographic region as the one in which you will be tested.
B)to approximate the best learning, it is necessary to employ strategic use of FOKs, but not JOLs.
C)an adaptive strategy is to study those items that have not yet been learned but are not too difficult.
D)the labor-in-vain effect will predict most aspects of JOL accuracy.

Question 26

Son and Metcalfe (2000) gave participants several short passages of text to study and told them to master all of them.The topics varied-some were about the use of bacteria in making beer whereas others were about Shakespeare's difficulties getting his first plays produced.Son and Metcalfe found that when participants had limited time, they:

A)concentrated on the easiest items to ensure that they would remember some materials.
B)concentrated on the most difficult items because the JOLs were the highest for those items.
C)concentrated their study on those items for which they had experienced TOTs for.
D)concentrated on the passage about beer, as they were college students after all.

Question 27

Rhodes and Castel (2008) examined several perceptual features, such as the size of the words for which people were making JOLs.They found that:

A)the size of the font can artificially increase the JOLs given to studied items.
B)left-handed people gave higher JOLs because the cue item appears on the left.
C)auditory JOLs are more accurate than visual JOLs.
D)priming the cue word affects speeded JOLs, but not speeded FOKs.

Question 28

Research by John Dunlosky and others has shown that JOLs are more accurate when:

A)the experimenter does not interfere in the judgment process.
B)participants are prepped beforehand in what to expect during the JOL test.
C)JOLs are made when on the cue of a cue-target pair than when both the cue and the target are shown.
D)accuracy decreases because the JOL itself no longer serves as a learning trial.

Question 29

Narinder has two exams the following day.She is convinced that no matter what she does, she will not be able to pass one of them.On the other hand, she thinks if she studies hard for the other exam, she could actually do well.Therefore, Narinder decides to study only for the exam she thinks she can pass.Narinder has:

A)made an error known as the conjunction fallacy-her performance in one exam is independent of her performance in the other exam.
B)demonstrated a lack of metamemory because with sufficient effort anyone can pass two exams.
C)failed to understand a principle of metamemory-namely that JOLs can be used to help us study.
D)demonstrated an aspect of metacognitive control-she marshaled her resources to accomplish a possible goal.

Question 30

Control processes in metamemory:

A)involve the monitoring of conscious knowledge.
B)involve the decisions and behaviors that we engage in to improve or alter or memory processes.
C)require little focused attention, as control is largely automatic in educated adults.
D)are seldom found to be accurate-artificial control leads to better metamemory.

Question 31

Fluent and easy-to-process items are often:

A)perceived as being the most difficult items to remember.
B)given low JOLs even when memory for these items may be excellent.
C)the ones we recall implicitly.
D)given high JOLs even when memory for these items may be poor.

Question 32

Research on retrospective confidence and eyewitness memory show that:

A)if a witness is highly confident that his or her memory is correct, this is given substantial weight by juries.
B)highly confident witnesses are actually less accurate than less confident witnesses.
C)people cannot assess others' confidence, so highly confident witnesses do not impact jury decision-making.
D)when juries are allowed to make decisions about cases using free-report conditions, their jury-making decisions are less than optimal.

Question 33

Define control as in metamemory.

A)Regulate input of cognitive processes.
B)Regulate retrieval based on monitoring.
C)Control ease-of-learning judgments.
D)Control all judgments of learning.

Question 34

Research by John Dunlosky and others has shown that JOLs are more accurate when:

A)the experimenter does not interfere in the judgment process.
B)participants are prepped beforehand in what to expect during the JOL test.
C)JOLs are made when on the cue of a cue-target pair than when both the cue and the target are shown.
D)JOLs are made when both the cue and the target are shown relative to a cue-less JOL.

Question 35

Nelson and Leonesio (1988) studied the relation between JOLs and the allocation of study time.They found that under their test conditions:

A)JOLs were unrelated to study time.
B)JOLs were negatively correlated to study time-higher JOLs meant less study time.
C)JOLs were positively correlated to study time-higher JOLs meant more study time.
D)JOLs were correlated with study time, but study time was not correlated with JOLs.

Question 36

Koriat and Goldsmith (1996) compared situations in which participants were forced to answer general-information questions to situation in which participants only answered those they felt confident that their retrieved answer was correct (free report).They found that:

A)under free-report conditions, accuracy was significantly impaired.
B)under free-report conditions, many fewer correct answers were reported.
C)under free-report conditions, accuracy declined, but correct answers actually increased.
D)under free-report conditions, accuracy increased without a significant decrease in correct answers reported.

Question 37

Allocation of study time refers to:

A)the manner in which people direct their study.
B)the allocation of attentional resources in implicit memory.
C)the factors which control the magnitude of FOKs and JOLs.
D)a measurement of metamemory monitoring.

Question 38

Most of the neuroimaging research on metamemory suggests the important centers for metacognition in the brain are located in:

A)Area V1 of the occipital lobe.
B)medial temporal cortex and the hippocampus.
C)the amygdala and hippocampus of the limbic system.
D)areas of pre-frontal cortex.

Question 39

According to the theory behind the region of proximal learning, we should:

A)allocate study to items which have not yet received study time.
B)allocate study to the most difficult items in the set.
C)allocate study time not to easy items that we have already mastered nor to the extraordinarily difficult items, but to learnable items, only which have not yet been learned.
D)allocate study time to the most easy items initially and then gradually to more difficult items as we warm up to the study task.

Question 40

Retrospective confidence refers to:

A)the confidence one has in the accuracy of one's JOLs.
B)the confidence that a retrieved answer is the correct answer.
C)the confidence that feeling of knowing is based on accurate assessments.
D)the confidence that allocation of study time has been successful.

Question 41

Cleary et al. (2012) suspected that one potential cause of the déjà vu experience is misplaced familiarity.That is, a scene looks familiar because of its similarity to another scene that is in memory but that fails to be recalled.They tested this by:

A)observing natural déjà vu experiences by observing people at familiar landmarks in major cities.
B)making participants move through virtual three-dimensional environments using virtual reality glasses.Some of the environments had identical geometry to others.
C)showing old movies and seeing if familiar landmarks provoked déjà vu experiences.
D)asking participants to make déjà vu judgments on common words, deciding whether they had heard them or not earlier in the experiment.

Question 42

Research on retrospective confidence and eyewitness memory show that if a witness is highly confident that his or her memory is false, this is given substantial weight by juries.

Question 43

Judgments of forgetting are:

A)given during learning and are predictions of whether an item being learned now will be forgotten later.
B)given during retrieval and are predictions of whether an item now forgotten will be remembered later.
C)confidence judgments concerning the accuracy of judgments of learning
D)all of the above are true.

Question 44

Allocation of study time refers to the manner in which people direct their study.

Question 45

Gilda is visiting Israel for the first time.While passing by the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, she experiences a strong sense of déjà vu.What is one likely explanation on this experience based on your textbook's discussion?

A)She has a misplaced judgment of learning.
B)This is the overconfidence phenomena, which occurs frequently during travel.
C)The familiarity for the location probably arise from having seen the location in moves and documentaries.
D)None of the above are true.

Question 46

In Cleary et al (2012), participants move through virtual three-dimensional environments using virtual reality glasses.Participants negotiate a virtual bowling alley, airport, or junkyard, or other scenes throughout the experiment.They found that:

A)virtual environments produced more déjà vu experiences than could be accounted for by cognitive explanations.
B)environments with which participants had familiarity with in their everyday life tended to produce fewer déjà vu experiences than unusual ones.
C)there were more déjà vu experiences for those scenes that were configurally similar to other earlier scenes than for scenes that were not.
D)déjà vu experiences were correlated with premonitions of seizures.

Question 47

Son and Metcalfe (2000) gave participants several short passages of text to study and told them to master all of them.The topics varied-some were about the use of bacteria in making beer whereas others were about Shakespeare's difficulties getting his first plays produced.Son and Metcalfe found that when participants had limited time, they concentrated on the easiest items to ensure that they would remember some materials.

Question 48

Rhodes and Tauber (2011) in a meta-analysis of the literature find that the monitoring dual-memories hypothesis accounts for a greater percentage of the delayed judgments of learning accuracy effect than does:

A)overconfidence.
B)the déjà vu hypothesis.
C)the cue-familiarity hypothesis.
D)the boost-in memory strength mechanism.

Question 49

Sharlene, while studying, assesses the items she has been studying to determine if she has, in fact, learned them.This process of assessment is called metacognitive monitoring.

Question 50

The "labor-in-vain" effect refers to the observation that participants will study more difficult items more than easy ones, but not enough to bridge the gap in recall between the two sets.

Question 51

Agenda-based regulation refers to the view that:

A)participants initially develop a plan of study, which includes both their study goals and their study constraints.
B)participants will study easy items if they can get away with it.
C)agendas are encoded differentially compared to cue-target stimuli.
D)the region of proximal learning occurs earlier in development.

Question 52

Research shows that both college students and middle-school students:

A)are not subject to stability bias.
B)employ region-of-proximal-learning strategies while studying.
C)show underconfidence in retrospective judgments.
D)fail to account for misplaced familiarity while making judgments of learning.

Question 53

The déjà vu experience refers:

A)good memory for foreign-language vocabulary.
B)when we study difficult items but cannot recall them later.
C)tip-of-the-tongue states for pictorial information.
D)the feeling that a new situation has been experienced before.

Question 54

Dunlosky and Ariel (2011) were concerned about habitual learning, in which people follow simple rules that are not necessarily predictive of performance.They found that:

A)participants will often study the items that are printed in the largest font first.
B)participants will often make erroneous tip-of-the-tongue judgments.
C)ease-of-learning judgments do not always correlate with item difficulty.
D)participants will often study the left-most item first rather than the easiest item not yet learned simply because their participants read from left to right.

Question 55

Temporal-lobe amnesiacs' feeling of knowing accuracy remains abnormal even though their memory performance declines.

Question 56

Studies linking TOTs and retrieval time show that when participants are experiencing TOTs, they spend less time trying to retrieve an unrecalled target.

Question 57

An experiment finds that feelings of knowing are influenced by unconscious access of the remembered target.The direct access theory supports this finding.

Question 58

Rhodes and Castel (2008) examined several perceptual features, such as the size of the words for which people were making JOLs.They found that the size of the font can artificially lower the JOLs given to studied items.

Question 59

Agenda-based regulation refers to the view that participants initially develop a plan of study, which includes both their study goals and their study constraints.

Question 60

Henry is learning American Sign Language (ASL).While conversing in ASL, he cannot remember the sign for "mosquito," though he is sure he knows it.This experience might be classified as:

A)tip-of-the-finger experience.
B)tip-of-the-pen experience.
B)tip-of-the-tongue experience.
D)tip-of-the-iceberg experience.

Question 61

Distinguish between metacognition and metamemory.

Question 62

Dunlosky and Ariel (2011) were concerned about habitual learning, in which people follow simple rules that are not necessarily predictive of performance.They found that participants will often study the ______ item first rather than the easiest item not yet learned simply because their participants read from left to right.

Question 63

Gilda is visiting Israel for the first time.While passing by the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, she experiences a strong sense of ______.One likely explanation on this experience based on your textbook's discussion familiarity for the location probably arose from having seen the location in moves and documentaries.

Question 64

Henry is learning American Sign Language (ASL).While conversing in ASL, he cannot remember the sign for "mosquito," though he is sure he knows it.This experience might be classified as tip-of-the-finger experience.

Question 65

Judgments of remembering are given during learning and are predictions of whether an item being learned now will be remembered later.

Question 66

Metacognition refers to our knowledge and awareness of our own cognitive processes.

Question 67

Research by John Dunlosky and others has shown that JOLs are more accurate when JOLs are made when on the cue of a ______ pair than when both the cue and the target are shown.

Question 68

The region of ______ learning means using an adaptive strategy to study those items that have not yet been learned but are not too difficult.

Question 69

Explain cue-target judgments of learning.

Question 70

Describe agenda-based regulation.

Question 71

Familiar cues can influence the strength of a feeling of knowing.This observation is consistent with the ______ theory.

Question 72

Rhodes and Tauber (2011) in a meta-analysis of the literature find that the monitoring dual-memories hypothesis accounts for a greater percentage of the delayed judgments of learning accuracy effect than does the ______ memory strength mechanism.

Question 73

Direct access theories refer to the idea that the ______ we make are based on the same processes that allow us to remember in the first place.

Question 74

Roscoe is appearing on a game show.If he remembers and answers a question right, he will win a large sum of money.Roscoe should employ metacognition strategies on answer he is unsure of by eliminating the incorrect answers that he knows are incorrect.

Question 75

In Shimamura's studies on temporal-lobe amnesiacs and Korsakoff's amnesiacs, there were differences in the pattern of deficits in the two groups.The two groups differ with respect to feeling of knowing accuracy in that the ______ amnesiacs could make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments, whereas the Korsakoff's amnesiacs could not make accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments.

Question 76

Son and Metcalfe (2000) showed that when participants had limited time to prepare for an exam, they would study ______, but when they had more time to prepare, they would study ______.

Question 77

Describe indirect or inferential theories.

Question 78

Explain the Region of Proximal Learning

Question 79

In Reder's game-show paradigm (Reder, 1987), participants must decide as quickly as possible if they know the answer.Using this paradigm, research has found that ______ judgments can occur faster than retrieval itself.

Question 80

Priming the cue in a cue-target pair has the feeling of knowing is lower for primed than unprimed items.