Deck 5: Perception, Cognition, and Emotion

Question 1

A ____________ is the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make sense out of situations, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions.

Answer 1

frame

Question 2

____________ can also occur as one party uses metaphors, analogies, or specific cases to illustrate a point.

Answer 2

Reframing

Question 3

The ____________ _________ ____________ is the tendency to neglect to use information that is available but expressed in numerical probabilities.

Answer 3

base rate fallacy

Question 4

Negotiators may intentionally manipulate ____________ in order to get the other side to adopt certain beliefs or take certain actions.

Question 5

The frames of those who hear or interpret communication may create ____________ of their own.

Question 6

____________ in frames between parties are sources of conflict.

Question 7

Perception is a "sense-making" process; people interpret their ____________ so they can make appropriate responses to it.

Question 8

Disputes settled by ____________ usually create clear winners and losers.

Question 9

____________ is the tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true.

Question 10

Considering mood and emotion, negotiators are portrayed as rational beings who seem ____________, calm, and in control.

Question 11

Frames shape what the parties define as the ____________ ____________ and how they talk about them.

Question 12

____________ ____________ is the process of devaluing the other party's concessions simply because the other party made them.

Question 13

Misperceptions and cognitive biases typically arise out of ____________ ____________ as negotiators gather and process information.

Question 14

Projection occurs when people ascribe to others the characteristics or ____________ that they possess themselves.

Question 15

Negotiators operating under ____________ also reached agreements having higher joint value for the two parties.

Question 16

Parties who focus on ____________ in a dispute are often able to find ways to resolve that dispute.

Question 17

Negotiations in which the outcomes are ____________ framed tend to produce fewer concessions, reach fewer agreements, and perceive outcomes as less fair.

Question 18

Frames are shaped by conversations that the parties have with each other about the issues in the ____________ ____________.

Question 19

The perceiver's own needs, desires, motivations, and personal experiences may be likely to create a ____________ about the other party in an upcoming negotiation.

Question 20

____________ ____________ occur when people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.

Question 21

Which of the following statements about how emotion plays a part in negotiation is accurate?

A) Negotiations only create negative emotions.
B) Positive feelings do not promote persistence.
C) Negative feelings may create positive outcomes.
D) Positive emotion may result from impasse.
E) Negative emotions do not undermine a negotiator's ability to analyze a situation accurately.

Question 22

Projection occurs when

A) attributes are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her membership in a particular social or demographic group.
B) people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.
C) the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief, and filters out information that does not confirm that belief.
D) people ascribe to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves.
E) All of the above describe projection.

Question 23

In which type of frame would parties be more likely to engage primarily in distributive (win-lose or lose-lose) negotiations than in other types?

A) Identity
B) Loss-gain
C) Outcome
D) Process
E) Substantive

Question 24

Frames are important in negotiation because

A) they allow parties to develop separate definitions of the issues
B) they can be avoided
C) disputes are often nebulous and open to different interpretations
D) do not allow negotiators to articulate an aspect of a complex social situation
E) all of the above

Question 25

One of the most important aspects of framing as issue development is the process of reframing, or the manner in which the thrust, tone, and focus of a conversation change as the parties engage in it. Reframing is or occurs:

A) the way parties challenge each other, as they present their own case or refute the other's.
B) a dynamic process that may occur many times in a conversation.
C) when using metaphors, analogies, or specific cases to illustrate a point.
D) and may be used intentionally by one side or the other.
E) all of the above apply to reframing as parties often propose new ways to approach a problem.

Question 26

The distinction between mood and emotion is based on which of the following characteristics?

A) specificity
B) intensity
C) duration
D) all of the above
E) none of the above

Question 27

The Endowment Effect

A) is making attributions to the person or the situation
B) is drawing conclusions from small sample sizes
C) is negotiators believing that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than actually true
D) is the tendency to overvalue something you own or believe you possess

Question 28

Halo effects occur when

A) attributes are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her membership in a particular social or demographic group.
B) people generalize about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual.
C) the perceiver singles out certain information that supports or reinforces a prior belief, and filters out information that does not confirm that belief.
D) people ascribe to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves.
E) All of the above describe halo effects.

Question 29

Those attempting to negotiate in China recognize the value the Chinese place in saving "face." Which of the following cultural elements should also be examined in approaching discussions with the Chinese?

A) Social linkage
B) Harmony
C) Roles
D) Reciprocal obligations
E) All of the above should be considered

Question 30

Which of the following is not a cognitive bias?

A) the irrational escalation of commitment
B) the belief that the issues under negotiation are all "fixed pie"
C) the process of anchoring and adjustment in decision making
D) the winner's curse
E) All of the above are cognitive biases.

Question 31

Which of the following cognitive biases can lead negotiators to discount the worth or validity of the judgment of others?

A) Irrational escalation of commitment
B) Mythical fixed-pie beliefs
C) Anchoring and adjustment
D) Availability of information
E) Overconfidence

Question 32

An insight drawn from research of the frames negotiators use in disputes would suggest that parties discussing salary may be likely to use outcome frames and may be related to which of the following.

A) Negotiators can use more than one frame.
B) Mismatches in frames between parties are sources of conflict.
C) Particular types of frames may led to particular types of agreements.
D) Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues.
E) Parties are likely to assume a particular frame because of various factors.

Question 33

Which of the following lists the stages of the perceptual process in the correct order?

A) stimulus, translation, attention, recognition, behavior
B) stimulus, behavior, translation, attention, recognition
C) stimulus, attention, recognition, translation, behavior
D) behavior, stimulus, recognition, attention, translation
E) None of the above lists the stages of the perceptual process in the correct order.

Question 34

Reactive devaluation

A) leads negotiators to minimize the magnitude of a concession made by a disliked other.
B) leads to reduced willingness to respond with a concession of equal size.
C) may be minimized by maintaining a more objective view of the process.
D) can lead to motivation to seek even more once a concession has been made.
E) All of the above are elements of reactive devaluation.

Question 35

The availability of information bias operates with which of the following statements?

A) when negotiators sometimes maintain commitment to a course of action even when that commitment constitutes irrational behavior on their part.
B) when thorough preparation, along with the use of a devil's advocate or reality check, can help prevent errors.
C) when information that is presented in vivid, colorful, or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall, and thus also becomes central and critical in evaluating events and options.
D) when the tendency of negotiators to believe that their ability to be correct or accurate is greater than is actually true
E) when the tendency will often lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as follows: People who expect to be treated in a distributive manner will (1) be more likely to perceive the other party's behavior as distributive, and (2) treat the other party in a more distributive manner

Question 36

The best way to manage perceptual and cognitive biases is:

A) to be aware that they exist.
B) to participate in group discussions.
C) to tell people about the bias.
D) complete a questionnaire.
E) All of the above help manage biases but may not be enough in and of themselves.

Question 37

Perception is

A) the process by which individuals connect to their environment.
B) strongly influenced by the receiver's current state of mind, role and understanding or comprehension of earlier communications.
C) a factor that can affect how meanings are ascribed.
D) a complex physical and psychological process.
E) All of the above describe perception.

Question 38

The irrational escalation of commitment bias refers to

A) the standard against which subsequent adjustments are measured during negotiation.
B) the perspective or point of view that people use when they gather information and solve problems.
C) how easily information can be recalled and used to inform or evaluate a process of a decision.
D) a negotiator's commitment to a course of action, even when that commitment constitutes irrational behavior on his/her part.
E) None of the above refer to irrational escalation of commitment.

Question 39

Negative emotions may lead parties to

A) more integrative processes
B) escalate the conflict
C) promote persistence
D) define the situation as integrative
E) more integrative outcomes

Question 40

Frames are shaped by conversations that the parties have with each other about the issues in the bargaining mix. Which of the following factors can affect how the conversation is shaped?

A) Negotiators tend to argue for stock issues, or concerns that are raised every time the parties negotiate.
B) Each party attempts to make the best possible case for his or her preferred position or perspective.
C) Frames may define major shifts and transitions in a complex overall negotiation.
D) Multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development.
E) All of the above contribute to the shaping of the conversation.

Question 41

How do multiple agenda items operate to shape issue development?

Question 42

Define perception.

Question 43

Explain "Irrational Escalation of Commitment."

Question 44

In negotiation, when does the availability bias operate?

Question 45

List the five concepts from Chinese culture, as identified by C. Tinsley that those attempting to negotiate in China should recognize.

Question 46

Define cognitive biases.

Question 47

Both risk-averse and risk-seeking framing is part of what theory?

Question 48

Define perceptual distortion by generalization.

Question 49

A key issue in perception and negotiation is framing. What is framing?

Question 50

What are the two things to keep in mind about the effect of frames on risk in negotiation (according to Neale and Bazerman)?

Question 51

How are frames critical in negotiations?

Question 52

How does projection occur?

Question 53

Describe the double-edged effect of overconfidence.

Question 54

What can help prevent errors of anchoring and adjustment?

Question 55

Define the fundamental attribution error.

Question 56

How does an outcome frame function in an environmental dispute?

Question 57

What is stereotyping?

Question 58

What role do frames play in the way they are constructed so that bargainers define problems and courses of action jointly through their talk?

Question 59

Why are mismatches in frames between parties sources of conflicts?

Question 60

What is the best remedy for the winner's curse?