Deck 7: Social Process Theories

Question 1

In labeling theory, "secondary deviance" is used to refer to crimes that

A)are nonviolent, such as theft and vandalism
B)occur as a result of an individual having been caught and labeled
C)have traditionally been overlooked by criminologists
D)occur as the result of other social problems, such as poverty and racism

Answer 1

B

Question 2

According to Lemert, ______ deviance is deviance that results from society's reaction to offender's initial nonconforming behavior.

A)primary
B)secondary
C)tertiary
D)formal

Answer 2

B

Question 3

A prison term is an example of ______.

A)positive reinforcement
B)negative reinforcement
C)positive punishment
D)negative punishment

Answer 3

C

Question 4

An offender arrested for shoplifting states: The store is owned by a huge company; they wouldn't have even noticed this loss.This is reflective of

A)appeal to higher loyalties
B)condemnation of the condemners
C)denial of injury
D)denial of responsibility

Question 5

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, most criminals

A)meticulously plan their crimes in order to avoid detection
B)are willing to delay gratification if it means receiving greater economic rewards
C)lack patience, persistence, and diligence
D)experience substantial guilt regarding the harm that they cause to their victims

Question 6

______ shifts the focus from the actor (the criminal) to the reactor (i.e., the criminal justice system) in exploring the causes of crime.

A)social control theory
B)social bonding theory
C)neutralization theory
D)labeling theory

Question 7

According to Lemert, ______ deviance is the initial nonconforming act that comes to the attention of the authorities.

A)primary
B)secondary
C)tertiary
D)formal

Question 8

Which of the following theorists is associated with labeling theory?

A)Travis Hirschi
B)Frank Tannenbaum
C)Ronald Akers
D)Edwin Sutherland

Question 9

Differential association theory is the brainchild of criminologist ______.

A)Edwin Sutherland
B)Gabriel Tarde
C)Ronald Akers
D)Walter Reckless

Question 10

______ argues that individual behavior is shaped through the process of reinforcement and punishment.

A)differential association theory
B)self-control theory
C)social learning theory
D)social bonding theory

Question 11

______ argues that an individual's propensity for crime is largely determined during childhood as a result of incompetent parenting, and tends to persist thereafter.

A)differential association theory
B)self-control theory
C)social learning theory
D)social bonding theory

Question 12

______ refers to the acceptance of social norms regulating conduct.

A)attachment
B)commitment
C)involvement
D)belief

Question 13

Frank Tannenbaum referred to the process of labeling a person criminal as ______:

A)the dramatizing of evil
B)negative reinforcement
C)positive punishment
D)symbolic interactionism

Question 14

This technique involves the assertion that the behaviors of parents, police, and others, are just as bad if not worse than the offender's.

A)appeal to higher loyalties
B)condemnation of condemners
C)denial of injury
D)denial of responsibility

Question 15

______ applied the concept of operant psychology to differential association theory.

A)Edwin Sutherland
B)Gabriel Tarde
C)Ronald Akers
D)Walter Reckless

Question 16

______ focus on how people interpret and define their social reality and the meanings they attach to it in the process of interacting with one another via language.

A)symbolic interactionists
B)functionalists
C)conflict theorists
D)feminists

Question 17

Which theory attributes delinquency to an excess of definitions favorable to violations of the law over definitions unfavorable to violations of the law?

A)differential association theory
B)neutralization theory
C)self-control theory
D)social bonding theory

Question 18

______ is a perspective on learning that asserts that behavior is governed and shaped by consequences.

A)labeling
B)operant psychology
C)reinforcement
D)symbolic interactionism

Question 19

An offender arrested for assault says: "I had to do it, he was threatening my little sister, and I had to protect her!" This is an example of which technique of neutralization?

A)appeal to higher loyalties
B)condemnation of condemners
C)denial of injury
D)denial of responsibility

Question 20

The loot from a burglary, or the status achieved by killing a member of a rival gang, are both examples of ______.

A)positive reinforcement
B)negative reinforcement
C)positive punishment
D)negative punishment

Question 21

Positive punishment makes a behavior more likely to be repeated in the future.

Question 22

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, levels of self-control fluctuate substantially throughout the life course.

Question 23

The policy implications derivable from social control and self-control theories largely have to do with the family.

Question 24

Edwin Sutherland is credited with neutralization theory.

Question 25

A major criticism of ______ theory is that it is a general theory meant to explain all crime.

A)social control
B)self-control
C)social bonding
D)differential association

Question 26

Differential association theory argues that crime is the result of individual traits combined with the influence of media violence.

Question 27

In regards to social learning theory, ______ is defined as the balance of anticipated or actual rewards and punishments that follow or are consequences of behavior.

A)differential reinforcement
B)differential punishment
C)operant conditioning
D)discrimination

Question 28

The view that offenders are risk-taking, oriented to the present, and lacking in patience, is most representative of which theory?

A)differential association theory
B)self-control theory
C)social learning theory
D)social bonding theory

Question 29

Labeling theory argues that processing law violators through the criminal justice system may actually embed individuals further into a criminal lifestyle, rather than having a deterrent effect.

Question 30

______ stimuli are presented before a behavior occurs, and then has an impact on that behavior's likelihood of being repeated.

A)discriminative
B)operant
C)reinforcing
D)punitive

Question 31

Which of the following is credited with neutralization theory?

A)Ronald Akers
B)Edwin Sutherland
C)Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi
D)Gresham Sykes and David Matza

Question 32

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, most crimes are spontaneous acts and require little skill.

Question 33

Neutralization theory suggests that offenders are completely detached from conventional norms.

Question 34

Labeling theory is unlike other criminal theories, in that it does not ask why crime rates vary, or why individuals differ in their initial propensity to commit crime.

Question 35

Which of the following is a valid critique of neutralization theory?

A)It says nothing about the origins of the antisocial behavior the actors seek to neutralize.
B)It only applies to property crimes.
C)It eliminates much of the overdetermined image of subcultural values implied in subcultural theories.
D)It unquestioningly accepts official definitions of criminality.

Question 36

Which of the following is one of the four elements of the social bond according to Hirschi?

A)attachment
B)commitment
C)belief
D)all of these

Question 37

Social process theorists believe that if we wish to understand social behavior, we have to understand how individuals subjectively perceive their social reality.

Question 38

Which of the following provides an explanation for how people learn to commit crime from those around them?

A)differential association theory
B)labeling theory
C)social bonding theory
D)self-control theory

Question 39

The most popular and enduring control theory is

A)self-control theory
B)social bonding theory
C)social control theory
D)social learning theory

Question 40

According to differential association theory, ______ become favorable to law violation according to the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of exposure to them.

A)labels
B)consequences
C)definitions
D)criminals

Question 41

What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?

Question 42

Discrimination is an important component of social control theory?

Question 43

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, what is the source of low self-control?

Question 44

Differential association theory asserts that differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

Question 45

How does primary deviance differ from secondary deviance?

Question 46

According to social bonding theory, commitment refers to a lifestyle in which people have invested considerable time and energy in the pursuit of a lawful career, rendering much at stake if they were to engage in crime.

Question 47

A child's bond with its parents would be representative of the social bond of attachment.

Question 48

A criticism of social learning theory is that it negates individual differences.

Question 49

Differential association theory has been critiqued for ignoring individual differences in the propensity to associate with antisocial peers.

Question 50

Social control and social learning theories agree with each other on a majority of issues relating to crime and criminals.

Question 51

Negative reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to be repeated in the future.

Question 52

For social control theorists, the real question is not why some people behave so badly, but rather why most of us behave well most of the time.

Question 53

Define involvement as an element of the social bond.

Question 54

All versions of social control theory have been criticized for neglecting social structure.

Question 55

Identify and explain two techniques of neutralization.

Question 56

Identify one criticism of differential association theory.

Question 57

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory, low self-control is sufficient to account for criminal offending.

Question 58

Identify and briefly explain two out of the four social bonds identified by Hirschi.

Question 59

How do discriminative stimuli differ from reinforcements and punishments?

Question 60

Identify one possible policy implication of differential association theory.

Question 61

Discuss the major points of labeling theory.What does this theory uniquely contribute to our understanding of crime? What are the drawbacks of this perspective?

Question 62

Define social control.

Question 63

Define self-control according to Gottfredson and Hirschi.

Question 64

Explain the primary concepts of differential association theory.Identify some of the nine propositions and discuss the purpose of definitions.

Question 65

Describe both differential association theory and social learning theory.Compare and contrast what the two theories have in common, and how they differ?

Question 66

Identify and explain the five techniques of neutralization according to Sykes and Matza's work.Provide one example of each.

Question 67

Identify the four elements of social bond according to Travis Hirschi's theory.Provide examples of each type of bond.Finally, consider the policy implications of this theory: how might society work to strengthen each of the four bonds?

Question 68

Briefly explain one of the positive elements of neutralization theory.

Question 69

Explain the primary concepts of social learning theory.Discuss the various types of reinforcement and punishment.Give an example of each.

Question 70

Describe Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory.What is self-control? It is stable? What is the role of opportunity in regard to self-control theory?

Question 71

Compare and contrast social bonding theory and self-control theory.How are they similar? How are they different?

Question 72

Discuss the policy implications of social process theories.Which theory do you believe is "best"? Support your answer.

Question 73

Provide an example of positive and negative reinforcements.