Deck 9: Single-Case Designs and Small-N Research

Question 1

The most serious disadvantage of the case study method,because of internal validity issues,is the

A)difficulty of making causal inferences regarding the effect of treatment.
B)limitation of information based on self-reports.
C)possible problem of generalizing from a single individual.
D)possible problem of observer bias affecting the interpretation of the outcome.

Answer 1

difficulty of making causal inferences regarding the effect of treatment.

Question 2

The relationship of the case study method to other research methods of investigation can best be described as

A)very similar to experimental approaches.
B)antagonistic to more controlled methods.
C)most related to methods used to conduct confirmatory studies.
D)interrelated with and complementary to other methods.

Answer 2

interrelated with and complementary to other methods.

Question 3

Identify a methodological problem specific to the ABAB design and a methodological problem specific to the multiple-baseline designs.

Answer 3

A methodological problem specific to the ABAB design is a failure of behavior in the second baseline stage to reverse to the level of the first baseline stage.It is very difficult to interpret whether the intervention was responsible for the change in behavior when the intervention was administered.Possible methodological problems specific to the multiple-baselines designs occur when behavior changes before the intervention and when the treatment generalizes to other behaviors or situations.

Question 4

Describe the common features that are present in both ABAB and multiple-baseline experimental designs.

Question 5

Figure:
Suppose the following data were observed for an individual who sought treatment for kleptomania.Using a single-subject experiment,the psychologist used "covert sensitization" to treat the stealing behavior across a number of different situations (e.g. ,stealing at the hardware store,drug store,discount store).Covert sensitization was applied systematically to each situation.The psychologist concluded that the treatment was very effective for reducing kleptomania.
As shown in the following graphs,an initial baseline period was conducted for each of three situations.The session in which covert sensitization was implemented is indicated with each situation.The dependent variable is the number of shoplifted items.
What type of research design was used in this study? [Be specific.]

Question 6

Case studies have been used successfully to study individuals with brain disorders and individuals with exceptional memory abilities.These studies illustrate the use of the case study method to

A)apply the nomothetic approach.
B)test a clinical innovation.
C)provide conclusive evidence for a particular theory.
D)study rare phenomena.

Question 7

A woman sought treatment for her symptoms of depression and anxiety. The psychologist, after checking his references for the best treatment given her symptoms, began twice-a-week cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy. By the end of eight weeks, she reported that she was much better, and had only occasional symptoms of depression and anxiety, which she considered to be normal. The psychologist wrote a report describing the results of his study, stating that her improvement offers conclusive support for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Do you think the psychologist's conclusions are correct? Why or why not?

Question 8

Which of the following is an advantage of the case study method?

A)Case studies are a source of definitive evidence in support of theoretical assumptions.
B)Case studies are a source of ideas and hypotheses about behavior.
C)Case studies provide little opportunity for clinical innovation.
D)Case studies complement the idiographic study of behavior.

Question 9

Idiographic research,as represented by the case study method,has the potential to reveal

A)causal mechanisms underlying behavior.
B)nuances and subtleties of behavior.
C)contradictory effects in well-controlled treatment studies.
D)definitive evidence for the effectiveness of a particular treatment.

Question 10

Identify two advantages and two disadvantages of the case study method.

Question 11

The major difficulty with the case study method as a basis for drawing cause-and-effect conclusions is that

A)coding of the results cannot be done reliably and validly.
B)biases of the researcher must dominate the interpretation of the results.
C)excessive constraints on the external validity of the case study prevent causal inference.
D)the simultaneous use of several treatments and failure to control extraneous variables prevent causal inference.

Question 12

The task confronting clinical psychologists can be described as trying to predict "what any one person will do." Actuarial predictions and group norms can be useful,but the clinician's task also illustrates the need for

A)nomothetic research.
B)spiritual research.
C)idiographic research.
D)psychoanalytic research.

Question 13

In the nomothetic approach to the study of psychology,researchers generally conduct

A)studies of many individuals and use their average behavior to describe how people behave in general.
B)intensive studies of an individual to describe the unique aspects of individuals.
C)studies of many individuals and use their average behavior to describe the unique aspects of individuals.
D)intensive studies of an individual to describe the way people behave in general.

Question 14

A woman sought treatment for her symptoms of depression and anxiety. The psychologist, after checking his references for the best treatment given her symptoms, began twice-a-week cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy. By the end of eight weeks, she reported that she was much better, and had only occasional symptoms of depression and anxiety, which she considered to be normal. The psychologist wrote a report describing the results of his study, stating that her improvement offers conclusive support for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
What type of research did this psychologist conduct?

Question 15

Which of the following characteristics is present in a typical case study?

A)extraneous variables are controlled
B)treatment variables are often varied systematically
C)several different treatments are often applied simultaneously
D)all of these

Question 16

Describe an advantage and a disadvantage of single-subject experimental designs relative to multiple-groups designs.

Question 17

A cognitive psychologist did an intensive study of a person who had suffered an unusual brain injury.Which of the following methods did the psychologist use?

A)case study method
B)unipolar method
C)baseline method
D)idiogram method

Question 18

Researchers are often unable to control extraneous variables when they use the case study method.This poor degree of control makes it difficult to use the case study method to

A)develop predictions of behavior.
B)consider alternative theoretical explanations of behavior.
C)draw cause-and-effect conclusions about behavior.
D)develop descriptions of behavior.

Question 19

Figure:
Suppose the following data were observed for an individual who sought treatment for kleptomania.Using a single-subject experiment,the psychologist used "covert sensitization" to treat the stealing behavior across a number of different situations (e.g. ,stealing at the hardware store,drug store,discount store).Covert sensitization was applied systematically to each situation.The psychologist concluded that the treatment was very effective for reducing kleptomania.
As shown in the following graphs,an initial baseline period was conducted for each of three situations.The session in which covert sensitization was implemented is indicated with each situation.The dependent variable is the number of shoplifted items.
What is your conclusion about the effectiveness of treatment? Explain your answer.

Question 20

What two methodological problems dealing with the measurement of baselines apply to all single-subject experimental designs?

Question 21

The application of single-subject experimental designs to socially relevant problems has its origin in

A)behaviorism and the experimental analysis of behavior.
B)neuropsychology and the examination of individuals with rare brain disorders.
C)the study of children who have been severely neglected.
D)psychoanalytic theory and intensive psychoanalysis of individuals.

Question 22

A serious problem of interpretation can arise in the ABAB design when

A)performance in the initial baseline period is too high or too low.
B)performance in the second baseline period does not reverse,that is,return to the level in the initial baseline period.
C)performance in the second baseline period is worse than it was in the initial baseline period.
D)performance improves to the same degree in both intervention periods.

Question 23

Which of the following statements is true regarding the relative advantages of single-subject experimental designs as compared to multiple-group designs in clinical research?

A)Single-subject designs are especially useful when research is directed toward changing the behavior of large groups of individuals.
B)Ethical problems arising from withholding a potentially beneficial treatment are less likely to arise in single-subject designs than in multiple-group designs.
C)Multiple-group designs are more effective when an investigator in clinical research can gain access to only a small number of clients with a particular disorder.
D)Single-subject designs are effective in identifying what treatments "in general" should be applied to modify behavior,but it is not possible to specify what effect the treatment will have on any specific individual.

Question 24

A researcher administers a treatment to four children in succession and monitors whether each child's behavior changes with the onset of the treatment.The researcher is using a(n)

A)ABAB design.
B)multiple-baseline design.
C)case study.
D)successive independent samples design.

Question 25

Problems in the interpretation of the results of a multiple-baselines design can arise when

A)changes in performance appear in the treatment stage simultaneously with an experimental intervention.
B)changes in performance appear in the treatment stage after an experimental intervention.
C)changes in performance appear in one of the baselines after an experimental intervention.
D)changes in performance appear in one of the baselines before an experimental intervention.

Question 26

An extensive case study of an individual's visual system reveals several important findings.The ability of the researcher to generalize these findings to other individuals can be described as

A)impossible-the findings cannot be generalized because a case study was used.
B)somewhat limited because people's visual systems are likely to vary somewhat.
C)very limited because people's visual systems vary so greatly.
D)not limited at all because the visual system of all organisms is the same.

Question 27

Problems of observer bias can arise in the context of a case study because

A)extraneous variables are often uncontrolled.
B)the nomothetic approach is especially prone to observer bias.
C)the researcher is often both observer and participant.
D)case studies typically involve unobtrusive observation.

Question 28

Which of the following designs is used when the researcher focuses on the way behavior changes with the systematic introduction and withdrawal of the treatment?

A)successive treatment design
B)multiple baseline design
C)case study
D)ABAB design

Question 29

The first stage of a single-subject experiment is the baseline stage.The baseline stage provides information about

A)personality characteristics of the participant.
B)the effectiveness of the treatment in the experiment.
C)what behavior would be like if the treatment were not provided.
D)the likelihood that the participant will be receptive to the treatment.

Question 30

The multiple baselines in multiple-baseline designs are usually established across each of the following dimensions except

A)different behaviors for the same individual.
B)the same behavior for different individuals.
C)different situations for the same individual.
D)one behavior for the same individual.

Question 31

What do each of the multiple baselines in the multiple-baseline design represent?

A)individual case studies
B)replications built into the design
C)redundant sources of evidence
D)inevitable sources of confounding

Question 32

If the treatment is responsible for changing behavior in a multiple-baseline design across individuals,then an effect in the behavioral record will be seen

A)at the same time for every individual.
B)immediately after the application of the treatment in each individual.
C)just before the application of the treatment in each individual.
D)immediately after the time when each individual's baseline stabilizes.

Question 33

The problem of generalizing from a single individual arises when the case study method is used.This problem is likely to be most serious when the case has been selected from a population with

A)zero variability.
B)a low degree of variability.
C)a moderate degree of variability.
D)a high degree of variability.

Question 34

Case studies sometimes provide evidence for the "success" of a particular treatment.People often find reports of these successful treatments highly persuasive.People are persuaded by testimonial evidence primarily because they fail to

A)consider why the treatment would not work for them.
B)see the personal relevance of the case study to their own situation.
C)check thoroughly into the qualifications of those who conducted the case study.
D)consider why the treatment would work for them.

Question 35

An effective treatment is identified in an ABAB (reversal)design when

A)behavior after the intervention is different from the baseline in both the first and the second AB stages.
B)behavior after the intervention is different from the baseline in the first AB stage,but not in the second AB stage.
C)behavior after the intervention is different from the baseline in the second AB stage,but not in the first AB stage.
D)behavior after the intervention is at the same level as the baseline in both the first and second AB stages.

Question 36

Which of the following is not a source of bias in case studies?

A)socially desirable responses in a client's report of his or her behaviors
B)the study of individuals with rare disorders
C)distortions in the client's memory for past events
D)inaccuracies in the therapist's observations of the client's behavior

Question 37

Single-subject experiments differ from the case study method in that single-subject experiments

A)rely more heavily on introspective reports by participants.
B)allow the simultaneous manipulation of several independent variables.
C)systematically contrast conditions within an individual whose behavior is being continuously monitored.
D)provide a more flexible alternative to the more highly controlled case study methoD.

Question 38

In a multiple-baseline design,the target behavior should change

A)long before the onset of the treatment.
B)just before the onset of the treatment.
C)long after the onset of the treatment.
D)just after the onset of the treatment.

Question 39

In the multiple-baseline design across individuals,the treatment is administered

A)many times to each individual.
B)successively to one individual at a time.
C)during the common baseline period for all individuals.
D)to all individuals in the study at the same time.

Question 40

Which of the following is not an acceptable approach for addressing the problem of excessive baseline variability in single-subject designs?

A)dropping the results for those subjects whose baselines show excessive variability
B)averaging across several data points in the baseline
C)"waiting it out" - continue taking baseline measures until behavior stabilizes
D)removing factors in the situation that might be producing the variability

Question 41

When an intervention in a single-subject design is expected to have an effect in the same direction as a baseline trend (either positive or negative),the researcher should

A)provide other evidence showing an effect of the treatment that flattens the baseline.
B)provide other evidence showing an effect of the treatment that causes the baseline to change direction at least twice.
C)use additional means of evaluation such as asking for subjective evaluations from others familiar with the individual.
D)use graphical analysis to prove that the change from the baseline trend is a "marked" change in the behavioral recorD.

Question 42

Single-subject research designs have been criticized because

A)researchers often test complicated interactions among variables.
B)some participants do not receive treatment.
C)the external validity of the findings may be limited.
D)all of these

Question 43

A frequent criticism of single-subject designs is that the external validity of these designs is limited.Which of the following does not refute this criticism?

A)Single-subject designs allow for successive administrations of the same intervention to the same person.
B)Multiple-baseline designs across subjects can demonstrate the effectiveness of an intervention for several individuals.
C)Single-subject designs can be done with small groups of individuals rather than with a single individual.
D)Interventions in single-subject designs are often ones that produce dramatic and sizable changes in behavior.

Question 44

When the effect of an intervention in a single-subject design is in the same direction as a baseline trend (either increasing or decreasing),the researcher

A)can be extra confident regarding the effectiveness of the treatment.
B)can be confident that the treatment did not work because of the baseline trend.
C)cannot make firm conclusions about the effectiveness of the treatment.
D)none of these

Question 45

A clinical psychologist seeks to increase the amount of time a child is able to work on a task.In order to make an interpretation about the effect of treatment using an ABAB design,the least problematic initial baseline period would show

A)an unstable pattern of behavior.
B)discontinuity from the beginning to the end of the baseline observations.
C)an increasing trend in the amount of time the child spends working on the task.
D)a decreasing trend in the amount of time the child spends working on the task.

Question 46

A psychologist develops a behavioral treatment to decrease the frequency of a child's temper tantrums.In order to make a causal interpretation about the effectiveness of the treatment using an ABAB design,the most problematic initial baseline period would show

A)an increasing trend in the number of temper tantrums.
B)a decreasing trend in the number of temper tantrums.
C)a stable pattern of temper tantrums.
D)a greater number of temper tantrums in the baseline period compared to the treatment perioD.

Question 47

Which of the following patterns represents an ideal baseline in a single-subject experimental design?

A)jagged line with several peaks and valleys
B)line with a positive slope (diagonal from lower left to upper right)
C)line with a negative slope (diagonal from upper left to lower right)
D)line with zero slope (horizontal line)