Deck 1: Basic Concepts

Question 1

In professional boxing it is appropriate to throw knock-out punches. Since professional wrestling is similar in many ways to boxing, it is appropriate for professional wrestlers to throw knock-out punches.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, cogent.
D) Inductive, strong.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Answer 1

Inductive, weak.

Question 2

Social psychologists conduct research into areas such as bystander intervention, prejudice, conformity, aggression, and obedience to authority. However, in order to gain insight into such critical issues, researchers must create vivid events that are involving for their participants. Some of these events, by their very nature, are likely to produce a degree of discomfort in the participants, such as witnessing someone having a seizure. Thus, what is required for good science and what is required for ethical science can be contradictory. Elliot Aronson, et al., Social Psychology

A) Argument, conclusion: Some of these events ... someone having a seizure.
B) Argument, conclusion: Social psychologists conduct ... obedience to authority.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument, conclusion: In order to gain insight ... involving for their participants.
E) Argument; conclusion: What is required for good science ... contradictory.

Answer 2

Argument; conclusion: What is required for good science ... contradictory.

Question 3

A rainbow sometimes occurs after a storm because the droplets of water in the air refract and reflect rays of light from the sun. The angle of refraction is different for different wavelengths of light, and this accounts for the separation of colors in the rainbow.

A) Argument, conclusion: The droplets of water in the air ... light from the sun.
B) Argument, conclusion: The angle of refraction ... wavelengths of light.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument, conclusion: A rainbow sometimes occurs after a storm.
E) Argument, conclusion: This accounts for the separation of colors in the rainbow.

Answer 3

Nonargument.

Question 4

Most Hollywood stars have a criminal dark side. Look at Robert Blake. He killed his wife. And Winona Ryder ripped off stuff worth thousands of dollars from Saks Fifth Avenue.

A) Inductive, cogent.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, valid.

Question 5

Cows' milk is hardly the perfect food, as the American Dairy Association would have us believe. Whole milk consumed in large quantities can raise blood cholesterol levels and contribute to heart disease. Studies have indicated a connection between the sugars in milk and ovarian cancer. The proteins in cows' milk can cause the body to develop antibodies that can lead to diabetes, and in a fourth of the population milk causes bloating, flatulence, and sometimes diarrhea. Jane Brody, "Debate over Milk: Time to Look at the Facts"

A) Argument, conclusion: The proteins in cows' milk ... sometimes diarrhea.
B) Argument, conclusion: Whole milk consumed ... contribute to heart disease.
C) Argument, conclusion: Studies have indicated ... ovarian cancer.
D) Argument; conclusion: Cows' milk is hardly ... would have us believe.
E) Nonargument.

Question 6

The colors of all glowing objects have the same origin: They come from atoms and molecules that have been excited to states of high energy. Atoms in burning fireworks and stars become excited by absorbing energy as heat. They then throw off their excess energy as light. The colors emitted by an atom depend on how its electrons are arranged. So by investigating the colors an atom emits, we can determine its internal structure. Loretta Jones and Peter Atkins, Chemistry, 4^th ed.

A) Argument, conclusion: The colors emitted by an atom ... electrons are arranged.
B) Argument, conclusion: The colors of all glowing objects have the same origin.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument, conclusion: They come from atoms ... states of high energy.
E) Argument; conclusion: By investigating the colors ... its internal structure.

Question 7

Each element and compound is a pure substance. However, most materials are neither single elements nor single compounds. Instead, they are mixtures of these simple substances, with one substance mingled with another. Thus, gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons and additives blended together to achieve efficient combustion. Loretta Jones and Peter Atkins, Chemistry: Molecules, Matter, and Change, 4^th ed.

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument, conclusion: They are mixtures ... one substance mingled with another.
C) Argument, conclusion: Most materials are neither ... nor single compounds.
D) Argument, conclusion: Each element and compound is a pure substance.
E) Argument, conclusion: Gasoline is a mixture ... achieve efficient combustion.

Question 8

We can distinguish three aspects of any sound. First, there must be a source for a sound; and as with any source, the source of a sound wave is a vibrating object. Second, the energy is transferred from the source in the form of longitudinal sound waves. And third, the sound is detected by an ear or an instrument. Douglas C. Giancoli, Physics: Principles with Applications, 5^th ed.

A) Argument, conclusion: Second, the energy ... longitudinal sound waves.
B) Argument, conclusion: Third, the sound is detected by an ear or an instrument.
C) Argument, conclusion: First, there must be a source ... vibrating object.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument, conclusion: We can distinguish three aspects of any sound.

Question 9

Developing accounting information in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles is called financial accounting, because this information is designed to summarize the financial position and operating results of a business entity. Financial accounting concepts apply to all types and sizes of business organizations. These concepts are useful to decision makers in both business and government in evaluating a wide range of economic issues. Walter B. Meigs and Robert F. Meigs, Accounting, 6^th ed.

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument, conclusion: Financial accounting concepts ... business organizations.
C) Argument, conclusion: These concepts are useful ... economic issues.
D) Argument, conclusion: Developing accounting ... financial accounting.
E) Argument, conclusion: This information is designed ... business entity.

Question 10

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid. It possesses a definite chemical structure, which gives it a unique set of physical properties. When the term mineral is used by geologists, only those substances that fulfill these precise conditions are considered minerals. Consequently, synthetic diamonds, although chemically the same as natural diamonds, are not considered minerals. Frederick K. Lutgens, et al., Foundations of Earth Science, 6^th ed.

A) Argument, conclusion: When the term mineral is used ... considered minerals.
B) Argument, conclusion: A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid.
C) Argument; conclusion: Synthetic diamonds ... are not considered minerals.
D) Argument, conclusion: It possesses a definite chemical structure ... properties.
E) Nonargument.

Question 11

I was appalled to read that many communities are accommodating-or pandering to-the owners of sport utility vehicles by increasing the size of parking spaces. Apparently, officials in these cities just want to go with the flow, when they could be using parking-space politics to encourage the use of smaller, more fuel-efficient cars. When will Americans come to their senses and see the S.U.V. for what it is? It's an outsized extension of egotistical consumerism. I'm sick of being pushed around by the egotists in their Tahoes and Excursions who think nothing of misusing nonrenewable oil and gas reserves, as well as increasing pollution. Jane F. Carlson, Letter to the Editor

A) Argument, conclusion: It's an outsized extension of egotistical consumerism.
B) Argument, conclusion: I was appalled to read ... the size of parking spaces.
C) Argument, conclusion: I'm sick of being pushed ... increasing pollution.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument, conclusion: Apparently, officials ... more fuel-efficient cars.

Question 12

Earth's distance from the sun has little to do with the seasons. The seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis as it revolves around the sun. This tilt causes some parts of the Earth to get slanting rays of sunlight some of the year and vertical rays of sunlight at other times. When a hemisphere of the Earth is tilted toward the sun, it is summer in that hemisphere. Gary S. Moore, Living with the Earth, 3^rd ed.

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: The seasons are caused ... as it revolves around the sun.
C) Argument; conclusion: This tilt causes some parts ... sunlight at other times.
D) Argument; conclusion: When a hemisphere of the Earth ... in that hemisphere.
E) Argument; conclusion: Earth's distance from the sun ... the seasons.

Question 13

Given that n is an integer, it follows that 2n is an even integer.

A) Inductive, strong.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, sound.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Question 14

Although accounting has made its most dramatic progress in the field of business, the accounting function is vital to every unit of our society. An individual must account for his or her income and must file income tax returns. Often an individual must supply personal accounting information in order to buy a car or home, to qualify for a college scholarship, to secure a credit card or to obtain a bank loan. The federal government, the states, the cities, the school district: all must use accounting as a basis for controlling their resources and measuring their accomplishments. Walter B. Meigs and Robert F. Meigs, Accounting, 6^th ed.

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: The accounting function ... every unit of our society.
C) Argument, conclusion: The federal government ... their accomplishments.
D) Argument, conclusion: Often an individual ... obtain a bank loan.
E) Argument, conclusion: Although accounting ... every unit of our society.

Question 15

If wind turbines are extensively deployed, solar power systems are installed, bioenergy technologies are exploited, electric cars are perfected and mass produced, and a high-speed rail network is constructed, then the nation will be weaned off its addiction to oil, climate change will be slowed, and billions of dollars in oil money will be redirected from nations that hate us to improving our own standard of living.

A) Argument, conclusion: Billions of dollars in oil money ... standard of living.
B) Argument, conclusion: The nation will be weaned off its addiction to oil.
C) Argument, conclusion: Wind turbines are extensively deployed.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument, conclusion: Electric cars are perfected and mass produced.

Question 16

Nearly all philosophers and neuroscientists reject mind-body dualism. The primary objection is that that it conflicts with the law of conservation of matter and energy in physics. The only way to accelerate matter or transform energy, including the matter and energy in your body, is to act upon it with other matter or energy. For these reasons, if your mind is going to influence the matter or energy of your brain or any other part of your body, your mind must itself be composed of matter or energy. James W. Kalat, Biological Psychology, 7^th ed.

A) Argument, conclusion: The only way to accelerate ... other matter or energy.
B) Argument, conclusion: If your mind is going to influence ... matter or energy.
C) Argument, conclusion: The primary objection ... matter and energy in physics.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument, conclusion: Nearly all philosophers ... mind-body dualism.

Question 17

Alloys in which copper is the chief constituent are used more widely than pure copper and have more desirable properties. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, is easier to cast, harder, and less malleable than pure copper. Bronze dominated early technology before iron came into use. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc with multitudinous uses. Alloys of copper, nickel, and zinc, called nickel silver, have high resistance to corrosion and wear and are used as bases for silver plating and in costume jewelry. Robert Boikess and Edward Edelson, Chemical Principles

A) Argument, conclusion: Bronze dominated early technology ... came into use.
B) Argument; conclusion: Alloys in which copper ... more desirable properties.
C) Argument, conclusion: Alloys of copper, nickel, and zinc ... costume jewelry.
D) Argument, conclusion: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc ... multitudinous uses.
E) Nonargument.

Question 18

Musical instruments are classed into groups: voices, strings, woodwinds, brass and percussion. Although they can be classified as wind, string, or percussion instruments, keyboard instruments are often considered separately. Operated by air under pressure, the human voice is technically a wind instrument. In recent times the computer and other electronic media have emerged as new means of producing music. Robert Hickok, Exploring Music

A) Argument, conclusion: Although they can be classified ... considered separately.
B) Argument, conclusion: Musical instruments ... brass and percussion.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument, conclusion: In recent times ... new means of producing music.
E) Argument, conclusion: Operated by air under pressure ... wind instrument.

Question 19

Our attitudes and values inevitably affect how we act, and it is the same with politics. The functioning of political institutions at least partly reflects the attitudes, norms, and expectations of the citizenry. Thus the English use their constitutional institutions to sustain their liberty, while the same institutions were turned into instruments of repression in South Africa and Northern Ireland. Gabriel Almond, et al., Comparative Politics Today, 7^th ed.

A) Argument, conclusion: The same institutions were turned ... Northern Ireland.
B) Argument, conclusion: Our attitudes and values ... same with politics.
C) Argument, conclusion: The English use ... South Africa and Northern Ireland.
D) Argument, conclusion: The functioning of political institutions ... the citizenry.
E) Nonargument.

Question 20

Whistleblowing is a morally ambiguous activity on a complex concatenation of grounds: It necessarily involves a betrayal of trust on behalf of a public interest which itself is on some occasions morally ambiguous. It indicts otherwise morally competent individuals and organizations concerned with being perceived as legitimate. Sometimes it arouses public opinion, a frequently contaminated process. Natalie Dandekar, "Can Whistleblowing Be Fully Legitimated?"

A) Argument, conclusion: It necessarily involves ... occasions morally ambiguous.
B) Argument, conclusion: Sometimes it arouses ... contaminated process.
C) Argument; conclusion: Whistleblowing is a morally ambiguous activity.
D) Argument, conclusion: It indicts otherwise morally competent ... as legitimate.
E) Nonargument.

Question 21

Which of the following is a deductive argument?

A) An expository passage.
B) An argument from authority.
C) A causal inference.
D) A disjunctive syllogism.
E) A command.

Question 22

No supporters of abortion rights are fundamentalist Christians. Therefore, no fundamentalist Christians are supporters of abortion rights.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Inductive, uncogent.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Question 23

Either the painting is a forgery, or it's worth a small fortune. Therefore, the painting is worth a small fortune, since it's not a forgery.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Deductive, sound.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 24

Sandra is older than Florence, and Florence is younger than Carl. Therefore, it necessarily follows that Sandra is older than Carl.

A) Inductive, strong.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Inductive, uncogent.
E) Deductive, valid.

Question 25

Given that x - y = 13 and x = 18. It follows that y = 4.

A) Inductive, strong.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Deductive, uncogent.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, valid.

Question 26

Which of the following is a premise indicator?

A) Whence.
B) We may infer that.
C) Implies that.
D) Because
E) Accordingly.

Question 27

Each of the codefendants testified that the other defendant killed the victim. Therefore, we can only conclude that both defendants killed the victim.

A) Deductive, unsound.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 28

DNA tests of blood found at the crime scene indicate a match with the defendant's blood. Therefore, the defendant must have been present at the crime scene.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Deductive, invalid.
E) Inductive, cogent.

Question 29

Mrs. Stevenson is a philanthropist. Therefore, she must give away a lot of money or property to what she considers worthy causes.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Deductive, sound.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Deductive, invalid.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 30

Which of the following is a conclusion indicator?

A) Given that.
B) As.
C) For the reason that.
D) Owing to the fact that.
E) As a result.

Question 31

Less than one percent of 38-year-old expectant mothers give birth to a Down syndrome baby. Therefore, since Pamela is a 38-year-old expectant mother, it is unlikely that she will give birth to a Down syndrome baby.

A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Deductive, sound.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 32

Which of the following is a necessary condition for cooking an egg?

A) Boiling it.
B) Raising its temperature.
C) Frying it.
D) Poaching it.
E) Breaking its shell.

Question 33

Which of the following sentences is a statement?

A) What is the density of gold?
B) Look!
C) You failed the last test.
D) Stop playing and come in for dinner.
E) I recommend that you change the oil in your car.

Question 34

The highway sign says that the risk of forest fires in this area is extremely high right now. Therefore, we must conclude that the risk of forest fires is indeed high right now.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, cogent.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 35

All credit cards are invitations to overspend, and some invitations to overspent are precursors of bankruptcy. Therefore, some credit cards are precursors of bankruptcy.

A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Deductive, sound.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Deductive, valid.
E) Inductive, weak.

Question 36

Which of the following is an inductive argument?

A) An argument from analogy.
B) A categorical syllogism.
C) A consequent.
D) A piece of advice.
E) An argument from definition.

Question 37

The bumper sticker says "Vote for Frank Jordan for Sheriff." The obvious conclusion is that Jordan is the best man for the job.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Deductive, sound.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Question 38

Today's edition of the New York Times ran a long article on the terrorist bombing in Israel. Therefore, probably the Los Angeles Times, which covers international news about as well as the New York Times, also has an article on that bombing.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Inductive, cogent.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Question 39

If people are not informed about the workings of government, then they cannot vote intelligently. People cannot vote intelligently. Therefore, people are not informed about the workings of government.

A) Inductive, strong.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, sound.
D) Deductive, valid.
E) Inductive, weak.

Question 40

The Director of the National Park Service stated in an interview that vegetation in the parks is seriously threatened by air pollution. Therefore, it must be the case that park vegetation is indeed threatened by air pollution, just as the Director says.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Inductive, uncogent.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 41

No theorist has more emphatically stressed the social determinants of personality than Erich Fromm. As a humanistic personologist, Fromm argued that a person's behavior can be understood only in the light of cultural forces existing at a particular moment in history. He believed that needs unique to the human being evolved through the history of humankind and that different social systems have influenced their expression. Larry A. Hjelli and Daniel J. Ziegler, Personality Theories

A) Argument; conclusion: No theorist has more emphatically ... Erich Fromm.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: He believed that needs ... history of humankind.
D) Argument; conclusion: He believed that different social systems ... expression.
E) Argument; conclusion: As a humanistic personologist ... moment in history.

Question 42

PART A If auditors botch their job, then investors are misled. Hence, if investors are misled, then public confidence is eroded, because if auditors botch their job, then public confidence is eroded.
The form of this argument is: PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?

A) A = Scarlett Johansson is a lawyer; I = Scarlett Johansson is a human; P = Scarlett Johansson can represent clients in court.
B) A = Ben Affleck is an actor, I = Ben Affleck is well known, P = Ben Affleck is a human.
C) A = cats, P = mammals, I = animals.
D) A = dogs, I = fish, P = mammals.
E) A = candy is sweet, I = lemons are sour, P = sea water is salty.

Question 43

Most partnerships have difficulty attracting substantial amounts of capital. This is generally not a problem for a slow growing business. But if a business's products or services really catch on, the difficulty in attracting capital becomes a real drawback. For these reasons, many growth companies, which begin life as a proprietorship or partnership, at some point find it necessary to convert to a corporation. Eugene F. Brigham, Financial Management: Theory and Practice

A) Argument; conclusion: This is generally not a problem ... business.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: But if a business's products ... becomes a real drawback.
D) Argument; conclusion: Many growth companies ... to convert to a corporation.
E) Argument; conclusion: Most partnerships have difficulty ... amounts of capital.

Question 44

The number of protons in an atom's nucleus determines its atomic number and the name of the element. For example, all atoms with six protons are carbon atoms, and all those with eight protons are oxygen atoms. Free atoms (those not combined with other atoms) have the same number of electrons as protons. Therefore, carbon has six electrons to match its six protons, and oxygen has eight electrons to match its eight protons. Frederick K. Lutgens, et al., Foundations of Earth Science, 6^th ed.

A) Argument; conclusion: The number of protons ... the name of the element.
B) Argument; conclusion: Free atoms ... same number of electrons as protons.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument; conclusion: For example, all atoms with six protons ... oxygen atoms.
E) Argument; conclusion: Carbon has six electrons ... to match its eight protons.

Question 45

A distinction is often made between management accounting and financial accounting. Management accounting focuses on internal reporting. It measures and reports financial and nonfinancial information that helps managers make decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization. Financial accounting focuses on reporting to external parties. It measures and records business transactions and provides financial statements issued to investors, government regulators, and other interested parties. Charles T. Horngren, Cost Accounting, A Managerial Emphasis, 13^th ed.

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: Management accounting focuses on internal reporting.
C) Argument; conclusion: A distinction is often made ... financial accounting.
D) Argument; conclusion: It measures and records business transactions ... parties.
E) Argument; conclusion: Financial accounting focuses on ... external parties.

Question 46

PART A If champagne contains alcohol, then minors should avoid it, so champagne contains alcohol, because minors should avoid it.
The form of this argument is: PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?

A) C = Napoleon was killed in a plane crash, M = Napoleon is alive.
B) C = cats, M = mammals.
C) C = Albert was killed in a car accident; M = Albert is dead.
D) C = cats, A = dogs, M = mammals.
E) C = Benjamin Franklin was killed in a plane crash; M = Benjamin Franklin is dead.

Question 47

If banks are prevented from engaging in risky practices, predatory lending is criminalized, trading in derivatives is made transparent and backed up by capital, and Wall Street lobbyists are held in check, then accountability and responsibility will be restored to the financial system, "too big to fail" will become a thing of the past, and a repeat of the Great Recession will be avoided.

A) Argument; conclusion: Accountability and responsibility ... financial system.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: Banks are prevented from engaging in risky practices.
D) Argument; conclusion: Wall Street lobbyists are held in check.
E) Argument; conclusion: A repeat of the Great Recession will be avoided.

Question 48

Which of the following is a sufficient condition for being a bird?

A) Having a tail.
B) Being a canary.
C) Laying eggs.
D) Being able to fly.
E) Having a brain.

Question 49

Microbiologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in universities where they are likely to teach, do research, and train students to do research. Others work in industrial laboratories to develop or manufacture antibiotics, vaccines, or similar biological products. Even some law firms are hiring microbiologists to help with the complexities of patenting new genetically engineered organisms. Jacquelyn C. Black, Microbiology: Principles and Explorations

A) Argument; conclusion: Others work in industrial laboratories ... products.
B) Argument; conclusion: Microbiologists work in a variety of settings.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument; conclusion: Even some law firms ... engineered organisms.
E) Argument; conclusion: Some work in universities ... research.

Question 50

The observational method is extremely useful in helping us describe social behavior. The correlational method is extremely useful in helping us understand what aspects of social behaviors are related. However, only a properly executed experiment allows us to draw conclusions about cause and effect. For this reason, the experimental method is the most commonly used research design in social psychology. Elliot Aronson, et al., Social Psychology

A) Argument; conclusion: Only a properly executed ... cause and effect.
B) Argument; conclusion: The experimental method ... in social psychology.
C) Argument; conclusion: The observational method ... social behavior.
D) Argument; conclusion: The correlational method ... are related.
E) Nonargument.

Question 51

If a deductive argument has a false premise and a true conclusion, then we know:

A) It is sound.
B) It is strong.
C) It is valid.
D) It is invalid.
E) Nothing as such about its validity.

Question 52

The world's oceans are salty because the water has dissolved salt from rocks. Streams and rivers flowing over rocks for eons have carried the salt to the sea. Also, water on the ocean floor flows into thermal vents, where it becomes heated and dissolves salt from the oceanic crust. Finally, water in the vicinity of submarine volcanoes dissolves salt from the molten lava. April Holladay, "Seas Are Salty But Don't Get Any Saltier"

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: The world's oceans are salty.
C) Argument; conclusion: The water has dissolved salt from rocks.
D) Argument; conclusion: Streams and rivers ... salt to the sea.
E) Argument; conclusion: Water in the vicinity ... molten lava.

Question 53

Large groups of prospective jurors are dispatched to courtrooms where they sit around for three to four days. Then attorneys and judges, in between other extensive court business, query each prospective juror over and over again with the same time-consuming questions to see if the juror should be excused, picked, or challenged. The process is maddening to watch and listen to. More often than not, after being required to report to the courtroom for three to four days the prospective jurors, in droves, are dismissed. Alan V. Weinberg, Letter to the Editor

A) Argument; conclusion: More often than not ... are dismissed.
B) Argument; conclusion: The process is maddening to watch and listen to.
C) Argument; conclusion: Attorneys and judges ... or challenged.
D) Nonargument.
E) Argument; conclusion: Large groups of prospective jurors ... four days.

Question 54

In an explanation, the statement or statements that purport to do the explaining are called:

A) The explanandum.
B) The antecedent.
C) The explanans.
D) The consequent.
E) The premises.

Question 55

All algae photosynthesize their own food, as plants do. Algae are also widely distributed in bodies of fresh water and in oceans. Because they are so numerous and because they capture energy from sunlight in the food they make, algae are an important source of food for other organisms. Jacquelyn C. Black, Microbiology: Principles and Explorations

A) Argument; conclusion: They capture energy from sunlight in the food they make
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: All algae photosynthesize their own food, as plants do.
D) Argument; conclusion: They are so numerous
E) Argument; conclusion: Algae are an important source of food for other organisms.

Question 56

PART A Some fettuccines are not taste sensations, for no low fat recipes are taste sensations, and some fettuccines are not low fat recipes.
The form of this argument is: PART B
Which of the following substitutions proves the argument invalid?

Question 57

Governments do many things. They wage war or encourage peace, and they cultivate or restrict international trade. They open their borders to the exchange of ideas or they close them. They tax their populations heavily or lightly, and through different means, allocate resources for education, health and welfare, or leave such matters to others. Gabriel A. Almond, et al., Comparative Politics Today, 7^th ed.

A) Argument; conclusion: They wage war ... international trade.
B) Argument; conclusion: They tax ... leave such matters to others.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument; conclusion: They open their borders ... or they close them.
E) Argument; conclusion: Governments do many things.

Question 58

If a deductive argument has all true premises and a false conclusion, then we know:

A) It is invalid.
B) It is cogent.
C) It is valid.
D) It is sound.
E) It is weak.

Question 59

The earliest models of the solar system employed what Aristotle, and Plato before him, had taught was the perfect form: the circle. The simplest possible arrangement-uniform motion around a circle having Earth as its center-provided a fairly good approximation to the orbits of the Sun and the Moon. But it could not account for the observed variations in planetary brightness or their retrograde motion. Thus, a more complex model was needed to describe the motion of the planets. Eric Chaison and Steve McMillan, Astronomy Today, 3^rd ed.

A) Argument; conclusion: A more complex model ... motion of the planets.
B) Argument; conclusion: But it could not account ... their retrograde motion.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument; conclusion: The simplest possible arrangement ... Sun and Moon.
E) Argument; conclusion: The earliest models of the solar system ... the circle.

Question 60

Tobacco smoke is a much deadlier carcinogen and triggers a broader variety of cancers than previously believed. A new study provides definitive evidence that secondhand smoke increases the risk of those exposed by 20%. Also, the study firmly links smoking to stomach, liver, cervical, and kidney cancer, as well as to myeloid leukemia. Such links were previously suspected but not proved. Thomas Maugh II, "Smoking Goes from Bad to Worse"

A) Argument; conclusion: The study firmly links ... myeloid leukemia.
B) Argument; conclusion: Such links were previously suspected but not proved.
C) Argument; conclusion: Tobacco smoke is a much deadlier ... believed.
D) Argument; conclusion: A new study provides ... those exposed by 20%.
E) Nonargument.

Question 61

Either the Republicans will be voted out or the economy will suffer. Therefore, the economy will suffer, because the Republicans will not be voted out.

A) Inductive, strong.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Inductive, sound.

Question 62

The right to healthcare has become a consumer issue. Historically, the poor either had to be satisfied with a decreased quality of care or to do without healthcare entirely. Today many citizens view equal access to healthcare as everyone's right. An ongoing debate centers on who should pay for this care. Ruth F. Craven and Constance J. Hirnle, Fundamentals of Nursing

A) Argument; conclusion: Historically, the poor ... do without healthcare entirely.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: Today many citizens ... everyone's right.
D) Argument; conclusion: An ongoing debate centers on who should pay for this care.
E) Argument; conclusion: The right to healthcare has become a consumer issue.

Question 63

The emerald is more expensive than the diamond, and the diamond is less expensive than the sapphire. Therefore, it necessarily follows that the emerald is more expensive than the sapphire.

A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Inductive, uncogent.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 64

The tag on this new sports coat says that the price is marked down to $49.95. Therefore, the current price must be $49.95.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Deductive, invalid.
E) Inductive, cogent.

Question 65

Given square A inscribed in circle B. It follows that the area of A is less than the area of B.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Inductive, cogent.
E) Deductive, invalid.

Question 66

The finger prints on the gun match those of the defendant. Therefore, the defendant must have handled the gun.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Deductive, uncogent.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 67

In a random sample of 50 students, only 15 said that they regularly read a newspaper. Therefore, probably less than 50% of the student body regularly reads a newspaper.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Inductive, uncogent.

Question 68

It's easy for budding stars to make it big in Hollywood. Look at Dustin Hoffman. He was instantly famous after his initial role in The Graduate.

A) Deductive, sound.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Deductive, valid.
E) Inductive, weak.

Question 69

The chief of the fire department issued a report stating that residential fires are down slightly from the prior year. Thus, it must be the case that residential fires are slightly down this year.

A) Inductive. strong.
B) Deductive, invalid.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Deductive, sound.
E) Deductive, valid.

Question 70

Michelle is an agnostic. Therefore, she must not have any firm belief in God.

A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Deductive, valid.
E) Deductive, sound.

Question 71

Professional football is the modern day equivalent of the Roman gladiatorial games. Therefore, since it was expected that gladiators would kill their opponents, no one should complain if professional football players injure or kill their opponents.

A) Inductive, weak.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Deductive, cogent.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 72

The mineral source of many manufactured items is not commonly known. For example, few people are aware that pencil lead does not contain lead metal but is really made of the soft black mineral called graphite. Talcum powder is ground-up rock made from the mineral talc. And the common mineral quartz is the main ingredient in ordinary glass and is the source of silicon for computer chips. Frederick K. Lutgens, et al., Foundations of Earth Science, 6^th ed.

A) Nonargument.
B) Argument; conclusion: Talcum powder ... made from the mineral talc.
C) Argument; conclusion: The mineral source ... is not commonly known.
D) Argument; conclusion: And the common mineral quartz ... computer chips.
E) Argument; conclusion: For example, few people are aware ... called graphite.

Question 73

The billboard ad for Joe's Used Cars says that Joe has fantastic deals. Therefore, it must be the case that Joe does indeed have fantastic deals.

A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Inductive, unsound.
C) Deductive, valid.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 74

Some princes are not military officers, since some reigning monarchs are not military officers and some princes are reigning monarchs.

A) Deductive valid.
B) Inductive, weak.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Inductive, strong.
E) Inductive, sound.

Question 75

Andrea is the sister of Henry, and Henry is the brother of Bill. Thus, Bill is the brother of Andrea.

A) Deductive, sound.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Deductive, invalid.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 76

Attempts to use solar energy on a large scale could have profound results. For example, it could change the albedo of the earth. This is the percentage of sunlight that is reflected back into space. Such an occurrence could cause a substantial change in the temperature of the earth, just as any other energy conversion does, making the planet too hot for life. Robert S. Boikess and Edward Edelson, Chemical Principles

A) Argument; conclusion: This is the percentage of sunlight ... back into space.
B) Argument; conclusion: Such an occurrence could cause ... too hot for life.
C) Nonargument.
D) Argument; conclusion: It could change the albedo of the earth.
E) Argument; conclusion: Attempts to use solar energy ... profound results.

Question 77

Judy and her friend Claire both love post impressionist painting, and Judy thought that the Gauguin exhibit at the museum was superb. Therefore, probably Claire would like that exhibit, too.

A) Deductive, invalid.
B) Deductive, sound.
C) Inductive, weak.
D) Deductive, valid.
E) Inductive, strong.

Question 78

If people can talk to the dead, then the dead are still alive. People cannot talk to the dead. Therefore, the dead are not still alive.

A) Deductive, valid.
B) Inductive, strong.
C) Deductive, invalid.
D) Inductive, weak.
E) Deductive, sound.

Question 79

Given a right triangle with one 30° angle. It follows that the other angle is 55°.

A) Inductive, cogent.
B) Deductive, valid.
C) Inductive, strong.
D) Deductive, invalid.
E) Inductive, weak

Question 80

We are immersed in life. We breathe it in, we walk on it, we touch it. Each footstep on a fertile lawn or forest mat will send tremors to trillions of bacteria, millions of algae, fungi, and protozoa, and hundreds of insects and worms. The skin on our bodies, when viewed microscopically, is a teeming matrix of tiny caverns filled with bacteria, viruses, and mites. So dense are the unseen life forms on our bodies that they form an almost complete shell about each of us. Gary S. Moore, Living with the Earth, 3^rd ed.

A) Argument; conclusion: Each footstep on a fertile lawn ... of insects and worms.
B) Nonargument.
C) Argument; conclusion: We breathe it in, we walk on it, we touch it.
D) Argument; conclusion: We are immersed in life.
E) Argument; conclusion: So dense are the unseen life forms ... about each of us.