Deck 4: Observation

Question 1

Two observers observe a child in the classroom every 30 minutes to record whether he is behaving aggressively.They use two categories for their observations: yes (aggressive)or no (not aggressive).Using the data presented below,answer the following question. Calculate and report the observers' interobserver reliability.

Answer 1

They agreed for 5 out of the 10 observations,representing 50% agreement.

Question 2

Describe the two main methods for indirect (unobtrusive)observation and the important advantage these methods have over direct observation.

Answer 2

The two main methods for indirect observation are physical traces and archival records.Physical traces include use traces,the physical evidence remaining from the use or nonuse of an item,and products,the creations,constructions,or other artifacts of behavior.Archival records are public and private documents that describe the activities of individuals,groups,institutions,and governments.There are two types of archival records: running records (continuous)and episodic records for specific events.The important advantage of indirect observations is that they are nonreactive; it is impossible for people to change their past behavior while researchers make their observations.

Question 3

Define observer bias and describe the best way to reduce this problem in a research study.

Answer 3

Observer bias is the name given to systematic errors in observation resulting from the observer's expectancies regarding the outcome of the study.Observer bias can best be reduced by limiting the information given to observers regarding the reason why the observations are being made or the hypotheses being tested in the study,that is,by using blind observers.

Question 4

Which one of the following statements does not characterize scientific observation?

A) The observations are made in a systematic manner with careful record keeping.
B) Observations are made under precisely defined conditions.
C) Researchers rely heavily on their memory when recording their observations.
D) Every effort is made to observe behavior objectively by avoiding personal and situational biases.

Question 5

Identify the four measurement scales and provide an example of each measurement scale.

Question 6

In psychological research,investigators sample individuals' behavior at different times or in different situations.The goal of sampling behavior is to

A) obtain as many observations as possible.
B) infer causes of people's behavior.
C) insure the highest possible interobserver reliability.
D) obtain a representative sample of behavior.

Question 7

Describe the primary goals of naturalistic observation,participant observation,structured observation,and field experiments.

Question 8

The extent to which findings from a study can be used to describe different populations,settings,and conditions is referred to as

A) sampling.
B) internal validity.
C) external validity.
D) the multimethod approach.

Question 9

Define and explain the reason for using time sampling and situation sampling in naturalistic observation.

Question 10

In using time sampling to gain a representative sample of behavior,the intervals in which the observations are to be made should be selected

A) economically.
B) only randomly.
C) only systematically.
D) either randomly or systematically, or both.

Question 11

Read this description of a study and answer the question that follow.
A reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university.For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different,large-lecture classes each day,each with a different instructor.She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes),and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make.The reporters pretended to be students,but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations.Using 10-point rating scales,they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting,organized,informative,friendly,and respectful.They summarized their findings and reported that,in general,the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Identify the type of observational method used in this study.

Question 12

Time sampling is not an effective method for sampling behavior that occurs infrequently.To observe behaviors in situations that occur infrequently,researchers choose

A) event sampling.
B) defined sampling.
C) random sampling.
D) field sampling.

Question 13

Two observers observe a child in the classroom every 30 minutes to record whether he is behaving aggressively.They use two categories for their observations: yes (aggressive)or no (not aggressive).Using the data presented below,answer the following question. Do you think the observers demonstrated acceptable interobserver reliability? Why or why not?

Question 14

Read this description of a study and answer the question that follow.
A reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university.For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different,large-lecture classes each day,each with a different instructor.She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes),and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make.The reporters pretended to be students,but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations.Using 10-point rating scales,they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting,organized,informative,friendly,and respectful.They summarized their findings and reported that,in general,the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Identify one aspect of the procedures in this study that the reporter used to improve the reliability of the observations.

Question 15

Researchers use time sampling to obtain

A) a representative sample of behavior.
B) an internally valid set of observations.
C) as many observation intervals as possible.
D) the highest possible interobserver reliability.

Question 16

Read this description of a study and answer the question that follow.
A reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university.For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different,large-lecture classes each day,each with a different instructor.She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes),and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make.The reporters pretended to be students,but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations.Using 10-point rating scales,they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting,organized,informative,friendly,and respectful.They summarized their findings and reported that,in general,the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Based on this reporter's procedures,are you confident that the quality of teaching at the university is "very good." Why or why not?

Question 17

Identify one factor that decreases interobserver reliability and one factor that increases interobserver reliability.

Question 18

Time sampling and situation sampling are used to increase which of the following characteristics of observational findings?

A) efficiency
B) external validity
C) interobserver reliability
D) internal validity

Question 19

Describe three problems and limitations that can occur when archival records are used in research,and how these problems affect researchers' conclusions about evidence from archival records.

Question 20

Read this description of a study and answer the question that follow.
A reporter at a university newspaper sought to gather evidence about the quality of teaching at the university.For one week at the beginning of the semester she attended 5 different,large-lecture classes each day,each with a different instructor.She asked 4 other reporters to do this too (they all attended different classes),and she trained them regarding the ratings they would make.The reporters pretended to be students,but sat in the back of class so the instructor wouldn't notice their observations.Using 10-point rating scales,they rated each instructor on five dimensions: interesting,organized,informative,friendly,and respectful.They summarized their findings and reported that,in general,the quality of teaching at the university is very good.
Identify one aspect of the procedures that would likely decrease any reactivity associated with the observations.

Question 21

Researchers conducted a study on "inattentional blindness" in the central gathering plaza of a university campus to determine whether individuals would notice unusual events.For half of the observation periods,a clown rode a unicycle in the plaza; in the other half of the observation periods,two costumed confederates acted a scene from Hamlet.Trained research assistants asked individuals who had walked through the plaza if they had noticed anything unusual.What type of observational study does this study represent?

A) field experiment
B) structured observation
C) naturalistic observation
D) reactive observation

Question 22

Researchers studying factors that influence how much people eat gave college students potato chips to eat while watching a movie.The potato chips were stacked in tubes.In some of the tubes,researchers inserted colored chips at regular intervals (e.g.,every 7^th chip).Other tubes contained no colored chips.In this study,the use of potato chip stacks with colored chips represents

A) disguised observation.
B) a controlled-use trace.
C) a natural-use trace.
D) a product.

Question 23

In a field experiment,the investigator

A) always uses narrative records for recording behavior.
B) never manipulates an independent variable, but observes behavior in a natural setting.
C) always uses qualitative data analysis.
D) always manipulates an independent variable in a natural setting.

Question 24

When individuals are not aware of the presence of an observer,as when data from physical traces or archival records are analyzed,the observation is described as

A) reactive.
B) unobtrusive.
C) spurious.
D) a natural treatment.

Question 25

Of the following observational methods,which one does not use intervention by the researcher?

A) naturalistic observation
B) participant observation
C) structured observation
D) field experiment

Question 26

The problem of reactive measurement is _________ when indirect (unobtrusive)observation is used.

A) eliminated
B) unchanged
C) decreased
D) increased

Question 27

A researcher seeks to describe behavior at an airport security screening area during a busy holiday travel time.Because there are far too many people for the researcher to observe effectively,she should use

A) naturalistic observation.
B) situation sampling.
C) running records.
D) subject sampling.

Question 28

The research method that represents a middle ground between the passive nonintervention of naturalistic observation and the systematic control when manipulating independent variables is called

A) structured observation.
B) participant observation.
C) quasi-observation.
D) nonreactive measurement.

Question 29

In order to conduct a structured observation or a field experiment,researchers make use of ________ to create the observation situation.

A) narrative records
B) participant observers
C) independent variables
D) confederates

Question 30

used participant observation to study psychiatric diagnosis in the context of a psychiatric hospital by having "pseudopatients" seek admission was to

A) establish a comparison by manipulating an independent variable to determine its effect on behavior.
B) investigate the limits of an organism's response by varying systematically the qualities of a stimulus event.
C) precipitate or cause an event that occurs infrequently in nature.
D) gain access to a situation or event that is generally not open to scientific investigation.

Question 31

One main disadvantage of structured observation is

A) observations that are made using structured observation are made under conditions that are less natural than those imposed in the laboratory.
B) failure to follow similar procedures each time an observation is made may make it difficult for other observers to obtain similar results.
C) the degree of control in structured observations unduly constrains the flexibility needed by researchers.
D) the compromise between the passive nonintervention of naturalistic observation and the precise control of laboratory methods has not proven to be effective.

Question 32

The remnants,fragments,and products of past behavior that provide unobtrusive measures of behavior are called

A) subtle traces.
B) archival records.
C) physical traces.
D) anecdotal evidence.

Question 33

Clinical psychologists who make behavioral assessments of parent-child interactions are likely making use of an observation technique called

A) low-intervention observation.
B) quasi-controlled observation.
C) structured observation.
D) disguised participant observation.

Question 34

When people change their usual behavior because they know they are being observed,the problem of ______________ has occurred.

A) selective deposit
B) spurious relationship
C) reactivity
D) demand characteristics

Question 35

Which of the following is the most likely reason that a researcher studying aggressiveness of children would choose to use naturalistic observation?

A) Naturalistic observation would allow for the most precise operational definition of aggressiveness and thus the highest degree of internal validity.
B) Naturalistic observation would allow for the greatest control over the setting in which the observations were made.
C) Naturalistic observation is the preferred method when moral and ethical limitations apply to the topic under investigation.
D) Naturalistic observation is the preferred method when systematic manipulation of independent variables is required.

Question 36

Researchers who studied beer drinking among college students made their observations in five town bars,a student center,and a fraternity party.They were better able to generalize their findings because they used

A) condition sampling.
B) situation sampling.
C) participant observation.
D) structured observation.

Question 37

Under which of the following circumstances is a participant observer more likely to have a significant effect on the behavior of the subjects being observed?

A) when the group under observation is small and the activities of the participant observer are disguised
B) when the group under observation is small and the activities of the participant observer are prominent
C) when the group under observation is large and the activities of the participant observer are prominent
D) when the group under observation is large and the activities of the participant observer are disguised

Question 38

When a researcher plays an active and significant role in the situation in which behavior is being recorded and when the researcher conceals the fact that observations are being made,the study represents

A) a disguised structured observation.
B) a disguised participant observation.
C) an undisguised naturalistic observation.
D) an unobtrusive field experiment.

Question 39

A researcher interested in "inattentional blindness" has a confederate walk across a stage holding a large sign during the first class of an introductory psychology course.At the end of the class,assistants ask departing students if they know what the sign said.This is an example of

A) structured observation.
B) a field experiment.
C) qualitative research.
D) undisguised participant observation.

Question 40

The degree to which a young child's dolls show signs of wear might indicate which dolls the child likes the best.This potential physical trace measure would be described as a

A) physical product.
B) running archival record.
C) natural-use trace.
D) controlled-use trace.

Question 41

One step in the analysis of narrative records consists of identifying units of behavior according to specific criteria.This process is called

A) coding.
B) chunking.
C) filing.
D) classifying.

Question 42

When a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it originally occurred is recorded in either written form or through the use of audio or video recording,the resulting description of behavior in an observation study is called a

A) physical trace.
B) data transcript.
C) complete file.
D) narrative record.

Question 43

A researcher examines the number of "family-size" products on supermarket shelves in America and France,and concludes that Americans prefer larger-sized portions than do the French.A second researcher concludes that the number of members in a typical family is larger in American than in France.These different interpretations indicate that

A) both researchers are wrong.
B) the researchers are making inferences about controlled-use traces.
C) the validity of unobtrusive measures must be examined carefully.
D) time sampling should have been used.

Question 44

When observers are asked to use a rating scale to measure a psychological dimension such as aggressiveness or anxiety,the researchers must decide whether these ratings represent

A) a nominal or an interval scale.
B) a nominal or an ordinal scale.
C) an ordinal or an interval scale.
D) an interval or a ratio scale.

Question 45

Researchers conducted a content analysis in which they coded how males and females are depicted in work settings on TV.They included programs with a story line and all commercials,but they excluded documentaries,news broadcasts,and sports shows.Which characteristic of the researchers' sample is likely to be most affected by these decisions?

A) reactivity
B) homogeneity
C) representativeness
D) internal validity

Question 46

Two types of archival records are

A) running records and episodic records.
B) natural-use records and controlled-use records.
C) selective-deposit records and selective-survival records.
D) none of these

Question 47

A researcher measures participants' speed to push a button on the computer when a stimulus is presented on the computer screen.Which of the following measurement scales describes this reaction time measure?

A) nominal scale
B) ordinal scale
C) interval scale
D) ratio scale

Question 48

The distinction between natural-use traces and controlled-use traces is similar to the distinction between

A) correlations and spurious relationships.
B) observations without intervention and observations with intervention.
C) qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis.
D) physical traces and archival records.

Question 49

Advice columnists respond to only a fraction of the letters they receive.If a researcher were to analyze only the columnists' printed letters to describe the everyday problems people face,which problem likely will affect the researcher's findings?

A) selective survival
B) selective deposit
C) spurious relationship
D) situation sampling

Question 50

A researcher uses archival records to investigate whether divorce rates in a city change following major catastrophes (e.g.,hurricane,terrorism).This represents the use of

A) physical traces.
B) qualitative data analysis.
C) selective survival.
D) natural treatments.

Question 51

Researchers who analyze postings on Facebook to understand human behavior are aware that the information people choose to display about themselves may be biased.In terms of archival data,this represents the problem of

A) spurious relationship.
B) unobtrusive measurement.
C) selective deposit.
D) selective survival.

Question 52

When many observations of the same children in a classroom are made it is possible to determine the frequency of certain behaviors,such as how many times children speak in class.Which scale of measurement do these frequency data represent?

A) nominal
B) ordinal
C) interval
D) ratio

Question 53

A state's education director received a report listing the school rankings in terms of high school students' graduation rates.Which scale of measurement is represented in this report?

A) nominal scale
B) ordinal scale
C) interval scale
D) ratio scale

Question 54

Research studies have examined evidence of past human behavior,including works of art,television shows,and bumper stickers,to test various hypotheses.This source of unobtrusive evidence is called

A) human artifacts.
B) use effects.
C) cultural evidence.
D) products.

Question 55

A researcher observes that the frequency of traffic accidents increases in warmer weather.This researcher need to consider whether there are more cars on the road when it is warmer.This "number of cars" variable must be considered to determine if the relationship between traffic accidents and temperature is

A) due to selective survival.
B) spurious.
C) a causal relationship.
D) due to physical traces.

Question 56

For both physical and psychological measurement,the lowest scale of measurement involves categorizing the stimulus into one of a number of discrete categories (e.g.,whether or not someone makes eye contact).This level of measurement is called

A) an ordinal scale.
B) a nominal scale.
C) a ratio scale.
D) an interval scale.

Question 57

Which of the following would be an example of coding a narrative record during the process of data reduction in qualitative data analysis?

A) calculating interobserver reliability
B) classifying behaviors from an observation record into different categories
C) displaying the data using a graph or a chart
D) obtaining a mean number of behaviors after classifying the behaviors into categories

Question 58

When events are classified into mutually exclusive categories on a nominal scale (e.g.,whether a behavior is present or absent),the most common descriptive statistic is

A) relative duration.
B) an average (arithmetic mean).
C) relative rank.
D) relative frequency.

Question 59

Which of the following dependent variables is most likely to represent a ratio scale of measurement?

A) duration of eye contact
B) rank ordering of amount of eye contact
C) occurrence of eye contact (present/absent)
D) observers' ratings of the intimacy of eye contact

Question 60

The process of abstracting and summarizing behavioral data from narrative records,including identifying categories and themes,is called

A) data abstraction.
B) coding.
C) data reduction.
D) summative analysis.

Question 61

Students conducted a naturalistic observation to study whether people arriving at the library alone would be more likely to hold the door open for a person coming in immediately after them than would people who arrived in pairs.The students made their observations looking through the window of a classroom building across from the library.They chose this position for observation to avoid the potential problem of

A) demand characteristics.
B) observer bias.
C) nonrepresentative sampling.
D) reactivity.

Question 62

Ethologists such as Diane Fossey (who studied mountain gorillas)use a technique to adapt animal subjects to the presence of an observer by gradually increasing the time they spend in the animals' environment.This technique is called

A) implosion.
B) desensitization.
C) counterconditioning.
D) progressive relaxation.

Question 63

Although there is no hard-and-fast percentage of agreement that defines low interobserver reliability,in published research studies,researchers generally report interobserver reliabilities that are at least as high as

A) 25 percent.
B) 50 percent.
C) 60 percent.
D) 85 percent.

Question 64

Two student researchers wish to determine the degree of interobserver reliability they achieved in their study.They observed individual students who were approaching another person on a campus path.The two observers both independently recorded whether or not each observed student greeted the other person.Which of the following measures should the student researchers use to assess interobserver reliability?

A) Pearson Product-Moment correlation
B) Spearman's rank-order correlation
C) interobserver coding measure
D) percentage agreement measure

Question 65

Students conducted a research project in which they hypothesized that women,more than men,would stop studying and look at each person who enters a library study room.Results indicated that women did make more head movements than men when people entered the library.To be confident about these results,we would want to make sure their results are not affected by

A) unobtrusive measures.
B) desensitization.
C) demand characteristics.
D) expectancy effects.

Question 66

In order to avoid the problem of ______,it is sometimes necessary to use ______.

A) reactivity; unobtrusive observation
B) observer bias; "blind" subjects
C) demand characteristics; "blind" observers
D) all of these

Question 67

Low interobserver reliability is likely to result because of

A) extensive training of observers.
B) specific feedback to observers regarding discrepancies between their observations.
C) lack of clear definitions of events to be recorded.
D) all of these

Question 68

The two pieces of information obtained from a correlation coefficient are

A) the extent of external validity and internal validity of a study.
B) interobserver reliability and percent agreement between two observers.
C) the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.
D) the predictive relationship and the causal inference between two variables.

Question 69

Which of the following correlations represents the greatest predictive relationship between two variables?

A) -.80
B) -.40
C) .00
D) .40

Question 70

Researchers planned a long-term study of children's relationships with their parent using observations in the homes of the families.Before beginning to collect data,the observers visited each home a few times and set up their recording equipment and recorded behavior just as they would do in the data collection phase of their study.These early visits to the home were done so that families would get used to the presence of observers.Which of the following techniques did these researchers use?

A) disguised observation
B) accommodation
C) habituation
D) interobserver reliability

Question 71

The cues and other information used by participants to guide their behavior in a psychological study are called

A) sensitization factors.
B) intra-experimental cues.
C) demand characteristics.
D) experimenter expectancies.

Question 72

Reactivity is a research problem because when it occurs,

A) observers may record only the observations that are consistent with their expectations.
B) people's behavior may not represent their typical behavior.
C) relevant information may be lost from archival records.
D) there will be a spurious relationship between variables.

Question 73

In order to minimize observer bias,researchers should

A) fully explain the research hypothesis to observers so there is no confusion.
B) limit the amount of information observers have about the hypothesis.
C) ask observers to code which of their observations are biased and which are not.
D) make sure that observers read all of the previously published research on the behavior they're observing.

Question 74

When researchers' expectations about behavior lead to systematic errors in identifying and recording behavior,_________________ is a problem.

A) reactivity
B) selective deposit
C) observer bias
D) data reduction

Question 75

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)can be used to measure interobserver reliability when

A) the behavioral data have been measured on at least an interval scale.
B) the behavioral data have been measured on a nominal or ordinal scale.
C) only one observer recorded observations.
D) agreement between observers is expected to be low.

Question 76

A researcher studying interpersonal communication measured the time that couples made eye contact during a conversation.Which descriptive statistics would most commonly be used describe the researcher's duration measurements?

A) mean and standard deviation
B) median and difference scores
C) mode and correlation
D) proportion and percentage

Question 77

Probably the most important control over observer bias is

A) the use of a detailed checklist.
B) informing observers about the purpose of the study.
C) restricting observations to the public domain.
D) the awareness that observer bias might be present.

Question 78

Two ethical issues researchers face when observing naturally occurring behavior (e.g.,messages)during online discussions are

A) confidentiality and privacy.
B) minimal risk and limited benefit.
C) plagiarism and IACUC.
D) none of these

Question 79

Which of the following statements about interobserver reliability is true?

A) High interobserver reliability of observations assures observations are valid (accurate).
B) Interobserver reliability is generally increased by clearly defining the events that are to be observed.
C) Interobserver reliability is best when observers are allowed to make their own subjective judgments when making observations.
D) all of these

Question 80

Some researchers argue that hypnosis is a special state of consciousness; other researchers disagree.They argue that when the hypnosis procedure is used,individuals simply respond to the cues and instructions made by the hypnotist in order to know how to respond.These cues are called

A) dependent variables.
B) demand characteristics.
C) reactive cues.
D) selective traces.