Deck 3: Ethical Issues in the Conduct of Psychological Research

Question 1

If a psychology student wants to do research involving human participants,which of the following has the ultimate authority to approve,disapprove,or require modifications prior to the approval of the student's research?

A) the department chairperson
B) the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB)
C) the university's IACUC
D) the faculty sponsor of the research

Answer 1

the university's Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Question 2

Describe the benefit and two major risks associated with the original obedience experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram,then identify three of the recent adaptations made by Jerry Burger in his replication of the obedience studies.

Answer 2

The benefit of the obedience studies was to determine the conditions under which people obey authority figures.Milgram wanted to understand what occurred in the Holocaust,when people's obedience resulted in massive atrocities.Burger sought to determine whether people obey authority figures in our present day.The two main risks associated with the Milgram study include deception and the high risk of psychological stress.Participants believed the "learner" was being shocked and they felt great stress as they obeyed the instruction to continue shocking the learner.Burger made several adaptations to lessen the risk in his obedience studies and make them acceptable to an IRB: participants were carefully screened prior to the study; participants were told they could withdraw at any time without penalty (and were paid prior to starting the study); a mild sample shock was used; the deception was explained immediately; a clinical psychologist conducted the experiment and stopped the experiment if a participant demonstrated excessive distress; and Burger stopped the experiment when participants reached 150 volts (rather than 450).

Question 3

Identify two ways in which debriefing benefits the participant and one way in which it benefits the researcher.

Answer 3

Debriefing can benefit the participant by removing any harmful effects or misconceptions about participation,explaining the need for deception,leaving the participant with positive feelings about his or her participation,and/or educating the participant about the research project and about research in general.Debriefing can benefit the researcher by providing an opportunity to find out the participant's perceptions of the research situation and any treatments that had been administered.Debriefing also can provide leads for future research and identify problems in research procedures.

Question 4

Identify the conditions under which participants are considered to be "at risk."

Question 5

If you want to conduct research at your college or university,you should inquire about the appropriate procedure for institutional review of your research

A) before starting your research project.
B) before you have completed your research project.
C) at any time during your research project.
D) no earlier than when you submit your findings for your degree requirements.

Question 6

Describe how the APA ethical standards for research with animals involve both the use and the care of animals.

Question 7

Describe how the use of deception can be justified on methodological grounds and describe the conditions under which the use of deception is always unethical.

Question 8

Ethical problems can best be avoided by careful planning and by consulting appropriate individuals

A) prior to beginning the research.
B) after testing several participants.
C) after the research has been completed.
D) after concerns about research are raised in the media.

Question 9

Identify three risks associated with Internet research and the procedures researchers might follow to lessen the each risk.

Question 10

Which of the following is one type of risk that contributes to the determination of the risk/benefit ratio?

A) economic risk
B) social risk
C) failure risk
D) media risk

Question 11

Which of the following represents the basic question addressed by the risk/benefit ratio?

A) Are the risks in a study greater than minimal risk?
B) Will the researcher's reputation be enhanced or hurt by the study's findings?
C) Are the benefits (to individual participants and society) of a study greater than the risks?
D) Are the benefits gained by individuals greater than the risks posed to society?

Question 12

The ethical standards of the APA's ethics code

A) are general ethical principles that researchers apply to their own research situation.
B) include clear rules for how research should be conducted in specific situations.
C) provide a set of specific rules for how to solve ethical dilemmas in psychological research.
D) provide principles for conducting research that are never contradictory.

Question 13

When the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater than those encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine tests,we say that the risk is

A) minor risk.
B) daily risk.
C) static risk.
D) minimal risk.

Question 14

Ethical issues associated with Internet (online)research

A) are not subject to the APA Code of Ethics.
B) are not as serious as those associated with in-person research because Internet research is more anonymous.
C) include informed consent, debriefing, and confidentiality.
D) all of these

Question 15

Greater risk in a research study is acceptable when

A) clear and immediate benefits to the participants are expected.
B) the research has obvious scientific and social value.
C) valid and interpretable results will be produced.
D) all of these

Question 16

The risk/benefit ratio that is used in ethical decision making represents

A) a mathematical ratio with calculable components.
B) an objective, rule-based evaluation of risks and benefits.
C) a definitive basis for making ethical decisions.
D) a subjective evaluation of risks and benefits.

Question 17

Failure to protect the confidentiality of a participant's responses may increase the risk in a research study by increasing the possibility of

A) physical injury.
B) psychological injury.
C) social injury.
D) performance injury.

Question 18

Distinguish between the three types of injury as sources of risk in psychological research: physical,psychological,and social injury.

Question 19

A student conducted a research project in which fake smoke entered the waiting area used by participants.This procedure was used to create a stressful situation and the student then tested participants' performance on complex reasoning tasks.One student waiting in a wheelchair experienced a panic attack when the smoke appeared.After this incident,the IRB stopped the research.This example demonstrates that

A) IRBs can be unreasonable.
B) characteristics of individuals must be considered when determining risk.
C) the deception was described fully during the informed consent procedure.
D) this research should have been conducted online.

Question 20

Participants in a study described as investigating "aspects of intelligence and social awareness" completed "intelligence problems" in small groups.Without their knowledge,half of the students were given easy problems,and half were given difficult problems.The students with easy problems finished easily in the allotted time,while the remaining students struggled.After the intelligence problems,the investigators asked students to complete social comparison measures (i.e.,how they rate themselves compared to others).Participants in this study

A) experienced minimal risk, because students take tests as part of their everyday life.
B) were "at risk," because of the deception.
C) did not face social risk because they were anonymous.
D) did not require debriefing because the investigator described the purpose of the study.

Question 21

Which of the following is typically not one of the dimensions a researcher should consider when deciding what information is private and what safeguards should be employed?

A) sensitivity of the information
B) source of the information
C) how the information will be disseminated
D) setting in which behavior is observed

Question 22

Researchers can avoid potential social injury or risk for participants in their research project if the researchers

A) avoid using deception in their research.
B) ensure the internal consistency of their study.
C) obtain informed consent from each participant.
D) protect the confidentiality of participants' responses.

Question 23

In the Milgram obedience studies,deception took place because

A) participants were told the study was about obedience to authority figures.
B) all the participants were male.
C) psychological researchers don't usually wear white lab coats.
D) participants believed they were shocking another person.

Question 24

When there is no way to connect a research participant's responses with that participant's identifying information (e.g.,name,identification number),the responses are said to be

A) confidential.
B) consensual.
C) anonymous.
D) minimal.

Question 25

In which of the following situations could individuals be vulnerable to excessive inducement or pressure to participate in research?

A) requiring prisoners to participate in a psychology experiment
B) asking college students to participate in research to fulfill a class requirement and giving them an alternative method to meet the requirement
C) paying college students $2 an hour to be in a psychology experiment
D) all of these

Question 26

Which of the following terms describes the ethical issue that arises when information is withheld from research participants or when they are given misinformation?

A) minimal risk
B) deception
C) distortion
D) plagiarism

Question 27

Debriefing individuals following their participation in research follows directly from the moral principles of

A) confidentiality and privacy.
B) malfeasance and dignity.
C) human interest and gratitude.
D) beneficence and respect.

Question 28

Researchers must use special safeguards to protect human participants when

A) more than minimal risk is present.
B) informed consent is not required.
C) behavior is observed in the public domain.
D) anonymous questionnaires are used.

Question 29

Researchers who conduct research with individuals who have limited ability to understand the nature of the research and its possible risks

A) must obtain informed consent from the parents or legal guardian and from the participants themselves.
B) do not need to obtain informed consent from the parents or legal guardians and should strive, when feasible, to get assent from the participants themselves.
C) do not need to obtain informed consent from the parents or legal guardian, nor get assent from the participants themselves.
D) must obtain informed consent from the parents or legal guardian and should strive, when feasible, to get assent from the participants themselves.

Question 30

The right of individuals to decide how information about them is to be communicated to others is referred to as

A) confidentiality.
B) anonymity.
C) self-determination.
D) privacy.

Question 31

Which of the following has been used as an argument for the use of deception in psychological research?

A) Deception is used so infrequently in psychological research that it should be banned.
B) Deception causes people to not trust experts.
C) General moral principles are sometimes suspended in other areas of life, such as in legal and medical practice.
D) Deception contradicts the principle of informed consent in research.

Question 32

Which of the following is not an important consideration for a researcher who is designing an experiment that will involve deception?

A) the availability of alternative, deception-free methods for carrying out the research
B) how many people will participate in the research
C) the importance of the study to scientific knowledge
D) the degree of deception involved and the possibility of risk to the participants

Question 33

Which of the following ethical principles is contradicted when deception is used in research?

A) informed consent
B) risk/benefit ratio
C) minimal risk
D) privacy

Question 34

Which of the following uses of deception is always unethical?

A) deceiving participants to get them to take part in research that involves more than minimal risk
B) deceiving participants to gain access to a particular group or setting
C) deceiving participants to be able to implement a specific independent variable
D) deceiving participants to get them to adopt certain attitudes or behaviors

Question 35

Researchers may not be required to obtain informed consent in which of the following situations?

A) when doing research with children
B) when doing research that involves more than minimal risk
C) when observing behavior in public settings with no intervention
D) when asking participants to complete questionnaires on the Internet

Question 36

For a class research project,students conceal themselves in bathroom stalls in order to observe conversational behavior of individuals at sinks in the washroom.They count the number of words spoken by women and men in their respective washrooms.The most important ethical issue in this research is

A) debriefing.
B) informed consent.
C) privacy.
D) deception.

Question 37

According to the APA Ethical Standards,psychologists must inform participants of the nature of the research,that participants are free to participate or to decline to participate,and that they may withdraw from the research.These requirements (among others)are necessary to ensure the participants'

A) anonymity and confidentiality.
B) risk level.
C) informed consent.
D) debriefing.

Question 38

Which of the following is one of the arguments against the use of deception in psychological research?

A) Deception is similar to "technical illusions" frequently used in society.
B) Deception is sometimes required to cause participants to adopt certain attitudes or behaviors.
C) General moral principles are occasionally suspended in other areas of life, such as in legal situations.
D) Deception causes people to believe psychologists are "tricksters" or liars.

Question 39

Final responsibility for conducting research in an ethical manner rests with the

A) investigator.
B) United States Department of Research.
C) Institutional Review Board (IRB).
D) department chairperson.

Question 40

Which of the following is not required of researchers in an informed consent procedure?

A) description of the nature of the research
B) reasons for why deception is used in the research
C) information that might influence participants' willingness to participate
D) all of these are required

Question 41

Whenever deception is used,the researcher has the ethical responsibility to

A) tell the participant about the deception as part of the informed consent procedure.
B) withhold information from the participant concerning the reasons for using deception.
C) debrief the participant about the deception.
D) maintain confidentiality regarding the use of deception.

Question 42

A faculty member adds a student's name to the list of authors for a research manuscript in order to help that student get into graduate school.The student's contribution to the research project was to enter responses to survey questions into the computer.This is an example of

A) plagiarism.
B) ethical recognition of the student's contribution to the research project.
C) unethical assignment of authorship credit.
D) failure to credit a secondary source.

Question 43

The overriding goal of regulations that guide research with animals is

A) making sure that animal rights groups do not sabotage research projects.
B) making sure the research has direct application to humans.
C) protecting the welfare of the animals.
D) helping people to understand humans' dominion over animals.

Question 44

When making reference in your paper to an original source that you have not read but learned about in a secondary source (such as a textbook),you should

A) not mention any source at all so as not to confuse the reader.
B) omit the information entirely until you read the original source.
C) cite the original source of the information, not the source you read.
D) cite the secondary source in which you found the original source, and write, "as cited in...."

Question 45

To ensure the welfare of participants in studies based on the Milgram experiment,recent modifications of the obedience procedure included

A) telling participants prior to the experiment that the shock they would administer was not real.
B) showing participants photos from the original obedience studies from the 1960s.
C) withholding payment for participation until all participants completed the study.
D) stopping the experiment once participants administered 150 volts, rather than 450.

Question 46

A student researcher learns during a debriefing procedure that participants misunderstood the instructions for the research task.This clearly demonstrates that

A) the research project should have used deception.
B) researchers also can benefit from the debriefing procedure.
C) the study likely involved more than minimal risk.
D) the order of publication credit should be revised.

Question 47

The process of making an ethical decision involves

A) identifying the ethical guidelines that are relevant in a situation and what is at stake for all parties involved.
B) deciding that an ethical decision is good if it makes everyone happy.
C) applying a clear and definitive set of guidelines for ethical research.
D) maintaining the anonymity of the researchers who are conducting the research.

Question 48

When writing a report describing a class research project,a student paraphrased some material from a psychology journal article.In order to avoid a charge of plagiarism,the student should

A) list the article in the references section at the end of the report, but not identify it in the text of the report.
B) identify the author and publication year of the journal article in the same sentence as the paraphrased material.
C) include quotation marks around the paraphrased material.
D) identify the author of the journal article at the end of the paragraph in which the material was cited.

Question 49

When the exact words from a source are used in a manuscript,which of the following is required?

A) the source must be properly identified
B) the location of the source
C) quotation marks
D) all of these

Question 50

Which of the following is not one of the areas that Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUC)are charged to review?

A) budget for the proposed research
B) procedures for controlling pain
C) adequacy of housing for the animals
D) procedures for training personnel who will work with the animals

Question 51

The primary goal of debriefing participants at the end of a research session is to

A) make sure participants have completed the entire study.
B) learn about any errors in the research procedure.
C) ask participants for their ideas regarding future research.
D) make sure individuals feel good about their participation.

Question 52

There is a general consensus among research psychologists that authorship of a scientific paper should be based mainly on the

A) time a person has spent on the project.
B) number of previous publications on the same topic a person has.
C) scholarly importance of the person's contribution.
D) person's status in terms of advanced degrees and academic position.

Question 53

When citing another person's thinking or ideas,a "substantial element" refers to

A) any key idea or concept, even a single word.
B) phrases that are at least 10 or more words.
C) anything that requires quotation marks in the citation.
D) concepts that are cited in a secondary source.

Question 54

Which of the following procedures is essential after an experiment involving the use of deception?

A) informed consent
B) debriefing
C) research evaluation form
D) legal disclaimer statement

Question 55

The suggestion that animals be used in research only when the results of the research have direct,apparent application to humans is most threatening to

A) research animals.
B) funding programs for applied research.
C) basic research.
D) all of these

Question 56

The primary goal of publishing research in a psychology journal is

A) to communicate the results to the scientific community and society.
B) to increase chances for continued funding of the research program.
C) to provide a method for debriefing research participants.
D) all of these

Question 57

Debriefing following the use of deception should include all of the following except

A) descriptions of people who were tricked by the deception and those who figured it out.
B) an explanation for the use of deception.
C) an attempt to address any misconceptions participants may have about the research.
D) an effort to remove any harmful effects resulting from the deception.

Question 58

With respect to animal research,the philosophical position of utilitarianism suggests that

A) the moral status of humans is greater than that of animals.
B) the best choice among alternatives is one that produces the best overall consequences for all.
C) humans should appeal to religious viewpoints when making ethical decisions.
D) human welfare should always be considered ahead of the suffering of animals.

Question 59

Which of the following statements concerning the use of animals in research is true?

A) Animals may never be subjected to pain or discomfort in research.
B) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort only when an alternative procedure is not available.
C) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort only when the scientific goals justify such procedures.
D) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort only when an alternative procedure is not available and the scientific goals justify such procedures.

Question 60

Presenting substantial portions of another person's work as your own is called

A) secondary source.
B) plagiarism.
C) paraphrasing.
D) authorship credit.

Question 61

When completing the steps for ethical decision making,the "correctness" of an ethical decision should be judged according to whether

A) everyone is happy with the decision.
B) a fair and ethical process was followed for making the decision.
C) the rights of the researcher were given prominence.
D) the financial support for the research is not jeopardized by the decision.

Question 62

A final step when researchers submit a manuscript for publication in an APA-sponsored journal is to

A) release all informed consent forms completed by participants.
B) submit a review of the research to their university IRB.
C) complete an Ethical Compliance Checklist.
D) seek the permission of individual research participants.