Deck 10: Section 1: Personality

Question 1

How did Freud describe the structure of personality?

Answer 1

The answer should include the following information: Freud described the structure of personality as having three levels-the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. These three levels are arranged in a manner similar to the structure of an iceberg. The conscious level consists of thoughts, feelings and sensations that you are aware of at this moment. The preconscious is composed of information that you're not currently aware of but that you can easily bring up to conscious awareness. Examples of preconscious material might include memories of recent events or your street address. The conscious and preconscious have been described as the visible tip of the iceberg, whereas the submerged, unconscious material makes up the bulk of what lies beneath. Unconsciousness is the largest part of the iceberg, composed of material that cannot easily be brought to conscious awareness. However, Freud believed that our unconsciousness could have an enormous influence on conscious thoughts and behavior by seeping through to the conscious level in distorted, disguised, or symbolic forms. Freud also believed that personality was governed by three psychological processes (the id, the ego, and the superego) that correspond to each of these levels of the iceberg. The id exists at the unconscious level and seeks immediate satisfaction of instinctual urges and drives; it is ruled by the pleasure principle. The superego corresponds to the preconscious level. The superego is partly conscious, self-evaluative, moralistic, and is formed through the internalization of parental and societal rules. The conscious level is populated by the ego, a partly conscious, rational component that regulates thoughts and behavior, and is most in touch with the demands of the external world.

Question 2

What are the basic assumptions in Carl Rogers's humanistic theory of personality?

Answer 2

The answer should include the following information: Two main concepts in Carl Rogers's humanistic theory of personality are the actualizing tendency and the self-concept. Rogers believed that human beings have an innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism. He called this the actualizing tendency and held that this is the most basic human motive. The cornerstone of Rogers's theory is the idea of self-concept, or the set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about yourself. The self-concept begins evolving early in life when infants, motivated by the actualizing tendency, engage in self-enhancing experiences. Increased self-awareness leads to the need for increased positive regard, or the sense of being loved and valued by other people. Rogers described two types of positive regard: conditional and unconditional. In conditional positive regard, a child senses that he or she is valued and loved only when he or she behaves in a way that is acceptable to others. Conditional positive regard leads to distortions in self-concept and denial of true feelings for fear of losing positive regard. Ultimately, incongruence, or conflicts of self-concept and actual experience, may result and can lead to psychological problems. Unconditional positive regard, on the other hand, refers to the child's sense of being unconditionally loved and valued, even if he or she doesn't conform to the standards and expectations of others. The child's actualizing tendency is allowed its fullest expression in an environment of unconditional positive regard, leading to the development of a psychologically healthy, fully functioning person who has a flexible, constantly evolving self-concept. A fully functioning person is realistic, open to new experience, and capable of changing in response to new experiences. This type of person experiences congruence, a condition in which one's sense of self is consistent with one's emotions and experiences.

Question 3

What was Freud's personality theory? Describe the personal, historical, and cultural factors that may have influenced the development of Freud's personality theory.

Answer 3

The answer should include the following information: First, Freud's personality theory was psychoanalytic and stressed the influence of unconscious mental processes, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and the enduring effects of early childhood experience on personality. This theory evolved gradually over the first 20 years of his private practice and was based on observations of his patients, as well as on self-analysis. One of his very early influences was Dr. Joseph Breuer, who introduced Freud to the idea of releasing pent-up memories and their associated emotion through hypnosis and catharsis. Freud eventually refined this technique to free association. Breuer and Freud published a number of books together, which established psychoanalysis and provided Freud with international recognition. In his later years, Freud focused on humanity's destructive tendencies. He believed that human nature and civilization are in a basic conflict that cannot be resolved. This view was influenced by the events of the 1930s, when Hitler came to power, Freud's books were banned and publicly burned, and Freud's life (and the lives of his family) was in danger.

Question 4

Describe the primary themes of Alfred Adler's theory.

Question 5

Compare the views of Sigmund Freud and Albert Bandura on human aggression.

Question 6

What personality types did Hans Eysenck describe in his trait theory of personality?

Question 7

Humanistic psychology is a view of personality that emphasizes human potential, self-actualization, self-awareness, and free will. This approach differs from Freud's pessimistic view that people were motivated by unconscious sexual and destructive instincts. Rather, humanistic psychology posits that people are innately good. The humanistic approach focuses on the healthy personality rather than on psychologically troubled people. This approach also differs from the behaviorist view that human and animal behavior is driven largely by to environmental reinforcement and punishment. In contrast, humanistic psychologists believe that people are motivated by the need to grow psychologically. As a consequence, humanistic psychologists doubted the use of rats and pigeons as experimental models of the essence of human nature. In fact, humanistic psychologists held that the most important factor in personality is the individual's conscious subjective perception of his or her self.

Question 8

Describe how Eysenck's trait theory of personality applies to each of the following people: First, there is Carl. He is a scientist who prefers to spend his time working alone in his quiet laboratory carefully conducting his experiments in hopes of finding a cure for cancer. Next, Carl's brother Timothy is a party planner who teaches group aerobic exercise classes in his spare time and loves to attend networking events. Then there is their cousin Frank, who is a troubled young man. Frank is prone to violent outbursts. He is easily angered and has even spent time in prison after a conviction for assault and battery stemming from a disagreement at a sporting event. Finally, there is Archie. He holds a pessimistic view of the world and tends to be very anxious. Because of these issues, Archie has been unable to hold a permanent job.

Question 9

What are ego defense mechanisms? Briefly describe the defense mechanisms of repression, projection, and denial, and their influences on behavior.

Question 10

What are the two major criticisms of the humanistic perspective on personality?

Question 11

What is the social cognitive perspective on personality, and how does it differ from psychoanalytic and humanistic perspectives?

Question 12

List the key strength and two weaknesses associated with the social cognitive perspective on personality.

Question 13

What is a surface trait? What is a source trait? What are the basic assumptions of the trait perspective on personality?

Question 14

Summarize the key ideas proposed by Carl Jung.

Question 15

Describe the four major theoretical perspectives on personality.

Question 16

What is the Oedipus complex? According to Freud, how is the Oedipus complex manifested and resolved in boys and girls?

Question 17

Describe Karen Horney's key ideas, including her views on Freud's interpretation of female development.

Question 18

What are three important criticisms of Freud's theory of personality?

Question 19

Briefly describe the five stages of psychosexual development in Freud's personality theory.

Question 20

Cindy recently gave birth to her first child. She unexpectedly went into labor at a shopping mall, and had the baby before the ambulance could arrive to take her to the hospital. Cindy had to endure the pain of childbirth in a strange, stressful environment without any anesthetic. Her baby is now 3 months old, and when people ask Cindy about her birthing experience, she claims that she cannot remember most of that day. In the context of Freud's psychoanalytic theory, what is the likely cause of Cindy's lapse in memory? Will she ever remember this event in full?

Question 21

What are the functional and structural brain differences that have been associated with the Big Five personality traits?

Question 22

Define graphology, and describe the scientific research investigating the claims of graphologists. State what conclusions can be drawn about this topic.

Question 23

What are some important criticisms of the trait perspective on personality?

Question 24

What is a self-report inventory? Describe the MMPI, the CPI, and the 16PF personality tests, and explain what each one is used for.

Question 25

What is a projective test? Name and describe the two projective tests discussed in the text.

Question 26

Based on the text's discussion of behavioral genetics, discuss the role of genetic and environmental influences on personality development. How do researchers determine whether or not a trait is genetically influenced?

Question 27

Describe the five-factor model of personality, and list surface traits associated with each factor.

Question 28

Explain the idea of 'possible selves,' and describe how possible selves can affect behavior.