Deck 11: Small N Designs

Question 1

In the Dresslar study on facial vision, Dresslar and two colleagues served as subjects. How were the results handled?

A) the data for the three subjects were summarized with descriptive statistics
B) the data for each subject were presented separately
C) the data for subject #3 were the clearest; only these data were shown
D) the results took the form of verbal descriptions; numbers were not used

Answer 1

the data for each subject were presented separately

Question 2

Small N research designs

A) are a recent development, originating with Skinner's work
B) began in the 1930s when Fisher developed ANOVA
C) characterized most of the early research in psychology
D) have never been popular with the majority of research psychologists

Answer 2

characterized most of the early research in psychology

Question 3

Which of the following was true about Thorndike's research on cats in puzzle boxes?

A) his explanations were criticized for not being parsimonious
B) more than one cat was tested, with the additional cats serving a replication purpose
C) his results were a direct contradiction of Skinner's ideas about conditioning
D) it shows how all the early researchers had to be highly talented as apparatus builders

Answer 3

more than one cat was tested, with the additional cats serving a replication purpose

Question 4

All of the following have been used as arguments for the use of small N except

A) averaging the data from a large N study can produce results that do not reflect individual performance
B) some populations are too small to be examined using large N methods
C) it is impossible to avoid confounding with large N studies
D) some studies (e.g., language learning in apes) require intense study of just a few subjects over a long period of time

Question 5

According to Skinner's experimental analysis of behavior,

A) the goal is to identify the stimuli that cause each of our behaviors to occur
B) it is important to study both how often a behavior occurs and how quickly it occurs
C) the consequences of behavior determine the future probability of the behavior occurring again
D) behaviors that lead to rewards do not have to be learned - they are innate

Question 6

What does it mean to say that a study fails the "individual-subject validity" test?

A) it means that sample size is too small
B) it means that the individuals in the study do not behave as predicted by the hypothesis
C) it means that the overall conclusion is not reflected in the behavior of individual participants
D) it means that leakage occurred - too many of the individual participants in the study knew the true hypothesis ahead of time

Question 7

In the early years of experimental psychology, studies often used three or four participants. How were the data handled?

A) the data were summarized as descriptive statistics (e.g., means), but inferential
B) the data for each participant were presented in the results
C) only the most unambiguous data were presented
D) the results took the form of verbal descriptions; numbers were not used

Question 8

Using the distinction made by historian Laurence Smith, it is fair to characterize Skinner as representing which scientist type?

A) the contemplative ideal
B) the technological ideal
C) an even blend of the contemplative ideal and the technological ideal
D) none of the above

Question 9

The device used to record behaviors in Skinner's operant conditioning experiments is called a(n)

A) operant chamber
B) schedule of reinforcement
C) cumulative recorder
D) reinforcement contingency

Question 10

For Skinner, the dependent variable of choice was

A) how often a behavior occurs
B) how quickly a behavior occurs
C) the strength of a behavior
D) whether the behavior was correct or in error

Question 11

In early small N research like the Dresslar study on facial vision, additional subjects

A) were tested until someone provided unambiguous support for the hypothesis
B) served the purpose of replication
C) had their data averaged to produce group means
D) were not needed; these studies never used more than a single person

Question 12

Every single-subject design includes each of the following elements except

A) a time during which a baseline level of behavior is measured
B) precise operational definitions of target behaviors
C) a withdrawal stage
D) a stage during which a treatment program is introduced

Question 13

Early research on visual discrimination learning, in which data from many subjects were averaged, supported which theory of discrimination learning?

A) discrimination learning occurs when children hit upon the correct hypothesis
B) discrimination learning occurs in a noncontinuous fashion
C) discrimination learning results from a gradual accumulation of habit strength
D) discrimination learning is essentially insight learning

Question 14

In the early years of experimental psychology (approximately 1880-1920), each of the following was true except

A) experimenters often participated as subjects in their own studies
B) studies were more likely to have small N than large N
C) subjects were often referred to as 'observers'
D) replication was a problem because means were based on just two or three subjects

Question 15

B. F. Skinner would agree with all of the following except

A) control environmental conditions and orderly behavior will follow
B) general principles can only be derived from the intensive study of many individual cases
C) it is better (i.e., more efficient) to study 100 rats for an hour each than one rat for 100 hours
D) psychology should be more of an inductive than a deductive science

Question 16

All single-subject designs include

A) a time during which a baseline level of behavior is measured
B) a control group
C) a withdrawal stage
D) at least two baselines (one at the start, one at the end)

Question 17

What was Skinner's attitude about applied psychology?

A) he was a strong advocate of applying operant principles
B) he believed that operant research should be exclusively basic laboratory research until all the laws of operant conditioning were well established
C) he was almost exclusively an applied psychologist - basic laws of conditioning did not interest him
D) he supported it, but preferred to leave applications to non-operant psychologists

Question 18

Thorndike's puzzle box studies

A) demonstrate the failure of large N designs in some situations
B) demonstrate that early experimentalists could not succeed unless they were talented creators of apparatus
C) illustrate the effective application of parsimonious explanations
D) provide strong evidence that cats had reasoning powers

Question 19

Research on visual discrimination learning in children has shown that

A) small N designs provide misleading data
B) averaging the data can produce a result that does not reflect individual performance
C) the gradual trial and error learning that typically occurs is well-reflected in graphs showing grouped data
D) a gradual increase in habit strength is the best explanation for the observed behavior

Question 20

In early small N research like the Dresslar study on facial vision, additional subjects served the purpose of

A) replication
B) a control group
C) helping to stabilize the calculated means
D) investigating individual differences

Question 21

Which of the following research examples used a multiple baseline across settings design?

A) the study with ADHD children
B) the study helping "George" to stop drooling
C) the study that helped children learn to control stuttering
D) the study that improved linebacker play

Question 22

All multiple baseline designs

A) evaluate the same behavior in more than one individual
B) examine the same behavior in an individual, but in two or more settings
C) introduce treatment(s) at different times
D) include a withdrawal element

Question 23

The study by DeLuca and Holborn showed how the physical condition of obese boys could be improved. The study used a __________ design and included __________.

A) multiple baseline; a withdrawal of treatment
B) A-B-C-B; period of noncontingent reinforcement
C) changing criterion; a withdrawal of treatment
D) alternating treatments; multiple baseline

Question 24

For which of the following designs is it most likely that changes could be attributed to the confound of maturation rather than to the experimental treatment?

A) multiple baseline
B) A-B-C-B
C) A-B-A
D) A-B

Question 25

A study by Flood et al. was designed to help ADHD school children stay on task. They used a(n) ______ design.

A) A-B-A-B
B) A-B-A
C) multiple baseline
D) alternating treatments

Question 26

A study by Kay and colleagues used a multiple baseline design to help an individual reduce drooling behavior. Their study included

A) a combination of training and reinforcement
B) multiple baselines in three different settings
C) calculation of interobserver agreement
D) all of the above

Question 27

A changing criterion design is built on the operant conditioning principle of

A) shaping
B) withdrawal
C) extinction
D) punishment

Question 28

In a typical A-B-A design,

A) a baseline is measured before anything else happens
B) treatment is put in place (A), then withdrawn (B), then reintroduced (A)
C) B refers to the “Baseline” phase of the study
D) treatment effects can be evaluated twice

Question 29

A researcher wishes to determine if bed-making behaviors can be increased more easily through either method A or method B. The best single-subject design to use would be

A) alternating treatments
B) multiple baseline
C) A-B-A-B
D) A-B-C-B

Question 30

What is the best design to use when trying to develop a consistent exercise program?

A) alternating treatments
B) multiple baseline
C) withdrawal
D) changing criterion

Question 31

Multiple baseline studies examine all of the following except

A) two or more different treatment programs
B) two or more different individuals
C) two or more different settings
D) two or more different behaviors

Question 32

A study by Wagaman et al. used a multiple baseline design to evaluate a program to help people reduce stuttering. The study is an example of baselines being established for

A) two or more behaviors within the same individual
B) the same behavior in two or more individuals
C) the same behavior in the same individual, in two or more settings
D) two different treatments within the same person

Question 33

Social validity is said to occur when

A) a procedure shown to be effective is recognized as such by the community and widely used
B) results shown to be effective in the lab also work in the social environment
C) a study with one type of person is also shown to be effective with other types of people in the
D) a study has been replicated with a second cultural group

Question 34

One of the multiple baseline designs in the chapter was illustrated by a study on improving linebacker performance. Which type of multiple baseline was used?

A) two or more different treatment programs
B) two or more different individuals
C) two or more different settings
D) two or more different behaviors

Question 35

Compared to an A-B-A design, the A-B-A-B design

A) evaluates the treatment twice
B) withdraws the treatment twice
C) leaves subjects exactly where they were when the study began
D) raises more ethical problems

Question 36

In an A-B-A design,

A) the first A is a baseline period
B) a treatment is put in place, then withdrawn, then put in place again
C) the two A's refer to two different baselines in a multiple baseline study
D) B = baseline

Question 37

Multiple baseline designs are preferred over withdrawal designs when

A) more than one subject is being tested
B) one treatment is being compared directly with another
C) the behavior being altered is self-destructive
D) the behavior to be changed must be changed gradually

Question 38

Which design is better, an A-B-A design or an A-B-A-B design?

A) A-B-A; it is more parsimonious
B) A-B-A; it has the ethical advantage of leaving subjects exactly where they started
C) A-B-A-B; it compares two different treatments
D) A-B-A-B; the treatment is evaluated twice

Question 39

Which of the following is true about the A-B design,

A) A refers to the treatment being tested
B) B is when the treatment is withdrawn
C) it allows for causal conclusions to be drawn
D) it lacks a period when the treatment is withdrawn

Question 40

A study by Flood et al. was designed to help ADHD school children stay on task. Which of the following was true of their study?

A) they used a multiple baseline design
B) there were enough children in this study so that average scores could be calculated
C) schoolmates of the ADHD children were a critical part of the treatment program
D) the study was controversial because it relied more on punishment than reinforcement

Question 41

In an A-B-C-B design, what is the "C?"

A) it means that reinforcement is given, but it is not contingent on the target behavior being performed
B) it means that reinforcement is given, and it is made contingent on the target behavior being performed
C) this is the point in a changing criterion design where a change (C) occurs
D) this is an alternating treatment (C is one treatment, B is another, and A is the third type of treatment)

Question 42

Which of the following is true about case study research?

A) the personality theorist Gordon Allport believed that case studies were only useful if they supplemented more valid methods
B) they are of limited value because they normally concern extremely unusual persons
C) the data from the subjects of case studies can be limited by memory failures
D) an advantage is the lack of experimenter bias

Question 43

In response to the criticism that single-subject results do not have external validity, advocates argue that

A) multiple replications have established the effectiveness of certain treatments
B) external validity is unimportant
C) single-subject research is designed to establish basic principles; it is not meant to be applied research
D) external validity is irrelevant

Question 44

What is being attempted with this design: A-B-BC-B-A-B-BC-B?

A) this is a type of alternating treatments design
B) the researcher is trying to examine the effects of the two treatments designated by A and C
C) this is an attempt to evaluate the interactive effect of two treatments (B and C)
D) this is a study combining a multiple baseline approach with a withdrawal design

Question 45

In an A-A1-B-A1-B design,

A) A1 refers to a time when a placebo is in use
B) A and A1 refer to two different types of treatments being compared
C) at least three different baselines will be established at different times
D) A and A1 refer to two people, an experimental subject and a control subject

Question 46

Which of the following has not been a common criticism of small N designs?

A) results do not generalize beyond the treatment environment
B) behaviors aren't defined very carefully
C) inadequate statistical analyses
D) unable to identify interactions easily

Question 47

A study by Foxx and Rubinoff showed how small N designs can be useful in reducing the amount of caffeine people ingest daily. They used which design?

A) A-B-C-B
B) A-B-A-B
C) alternating treatment
D) changing criterion

Question 48

Luria's mnemonist ("S.") was studied through the use of which procedure?

A) interview survey method
B) single-subject withdrawal procedures
C) case study procedures
D) archival research

Question 49

Which of the following designs evaluates a drug treatment program by including a placebo condition?

A) A-A1-B-A1-B
B) changing criterion
C) alternating treatment
D) A-B-C-B

Question 50

Which of the following is true about case study research?

A) it might be the only way to study some rare individual
B) experimenter bias can affect what the researcher records about the case
C) the data from the subjects of case studies can be limited by memory failures
D) all of the above are true

Question 51

In an A-B-C-B design,

A) contingent reinforcement (B) is compared with no reinforcement (C)
B) reinforcement is given but is not contingent on behavior during period C
C) drug effects can be evaluated; C is the placebo control condition
D) two different reinforcement schedules are compared, one during the first B and a second during the second B

Question 52

Single-subject designs have been criticized for all of the following reasons except

A) results do not generalize beyond the treatment environment
B) too much reliance on visual inspection and not enough statistical analysis
C) replication does not seem to be important to small N advocates
D) the designs do not test interactions effectively

Question 53

Health-related behaviors, such as those involving diet and exercise, are best developed through the use of which design?

A) changing criterion
B) alternating treatment
C) A-B-A
D) multiple baseline

Question 54

Someone might argue that it is n0t important that the reinforcement be made contingent on a specific behavior; all that matters in order to change the behavior is that reinforcement be given. A(n) _______ design can be used to test this claim.

A) multiple contingency
B) changing criterion
C) alternating treatment
D) A-B-C-B

Question 55

Small N designs have been criticized for

A) being unable to test for interactions
B) being unconcerned with applications
C) using too many different dependent variables
D) overuse of statistical analysis

Question 56

Trying to change a behavior in more than one environment in the same study is the goal of a(n) _____ design.

A) multiple baseline
B) alternating treatments
C) withdrawal
D) A-B-C-B

Question 57

The case study of former boxer "AB" illustrates the importance of case studies to

A) use inferential statistics to make claims about groups of individuals.
B) describe groups of individuals similar to a single case.
C) rely on anecdotal evidence.
D) guide individualized treatment and/or rehabilitation for the patient.

Question 58

Which of the following designs compares the effects of contingent with noncontingent reinforcement?

A) A-A1-B-A1-B
B) changing criterion
C) alternating treatment
D) A-B-C-B

Question 59

Luria's case study of S., the mnemonist,

A) is an example of archival research
B) demonstrates the limited value of case studies (who else is like this?)
C) demonstrates that case studies of unusual people can shed light on normal phenomena (e.g., the value of a limited short-term memory)
D) illustrates the problem of experimenter bias in case study research (S.'s memorywould not have been so exceptional if Luria had not paid so much attention to him)

Question 60

Freud's research was primarily of the _______ variety.

A) case study
B) observational
C) archival
D) interview survey

Question 61

For any single-subject design, the initial step is to establish a(n) _______.

Question 62

Describe two different varieties of case study and give an example of each.

Question 63

The method used by Luria to study exceptional memory was the __________ method.

Question 64

An A-B-A and an A-B-A-B are both examples of ________ designs.

Question 65

Describe what is meant by social validity.

Question 66

Describe the three basic varieties of the multiple baseline design.

Question 67

More than one type of treatment program can be examined in a(n) __________ design.

Question 68

Describe the operant phenomenon of shaping and show how it forms the basis for one of the single-subject designs.

Question 69

In operant conditioning research, rate of response is measured by means of a(n) ________.

Question 70

Describe the essential features of these designs: A-B-C-B, A-A1-B-A1-B, alternating treatments.

Question 71

The operant procedure of gradually shaping a behavior by reinforcing successive approximations to the final desired behavior is exemplified by the _________ design.

Question 72

Describe the basic logic behind the use of a withdrawal design, and explain why an A-B-A-B design is preferred over an A-B-A design.

Question 73

Describe the criticisms of single-subject research designs. How do advocates of the approach respond?

Question 74

A comparison between reinforcement that is directly contingent upon behavior and noncontingent reinforcement can be made with a(n) _______ design.

Question 75

Use the visual discrimination learning example to show that grouping data can produce problems with individual-subject validity.

Question 76

A(n) _______ design evaluates the effects of a drug treatment program by including a placebo condition.

Question 77

A researcher wishes to examine the effects of a treatment on a single individual, first in one setting, then in a second, then in a third; this calls for a(n) _________ design.

Question 78

In operant conditioning research, according to Skinner, the only important dependent measure is _________.

Question 79

Single-subject designs have several elements in common. Describe them.

Question 80

Describe how McMicken et al. used the case study method to evaluate boxer "AB."