Deck 1: Section 1: Psychology: Evolution of a Science

Question 1

Humans have a tendency to be afraid of the dark. Provide an explanation of this phenomenon within the framework of both behaviorism and evolutionary psychology. Are the two explanations necessarily incompatible?

Answer 1

The answer should provide the following information: (1) Humans tend not to see well at night. As such, we are prone to accidents when navigating in the dark. In addition, we are at a disadvantage if surrounded by large nocturnal animals that could possibly harm us. In contrast, hunkering down and sleeping in small groups at night provides some measure of safety; (2) Behaviorists would focus on the learning that occurs within an individual's lifetime. For example, the last time Bob went hunting at night he broke his ankle and almost got eaten by a lion. Hunting at night, then, has been punished by its consequences. Conversely, seeking a safe shelter is reinforced with warmth, safety, and companionship. As a result of these learning experiences, Bob fears the dark and would rather stay inside; (3) Evolutionary psychologists would note that, during the course of mammalian evolution, our ancestors who ventured outside in the dark tended not to reproduce in great numbers, perhaps because they fell off cliffs or got eaten by crocodiles. Those ancestors, who just so happened to be leery of the dark, lived to pass on their genes. Thus, we are left with the genes of those who did not particularly enjoy nightly jaunts through the forest; (4) On the surface, the two explanations are very different. While behaviorists do not deny the role of genetics, they point to the environment as the major determinant of behavior. As such, a behaviorist would first seek to understand the learning experiences that shaped an individual's fear of the dark. On the other hand, an evolutionary psychologist will focus on differential reproductive success as a result of the behavior of our ancestors. We are left with their genes, and thus, their behavior patterns; (5) The two explanations are not incompatible but rather represent different levels of analysis. For example, early mammals might learn to avoid the dark through natural consequences within their lifetime. Principles of reinforcement and punishment from a behavioral account would explain this behavior. These are the mammals that live to reproduce and pass on their genes. To the extent that susceptibility to reinforcement is, in part, genetically based, we are genetically predisposed to fear the dark due to the learning experiences of our remote ancestors.

Question 2

Why would John Watson disagree with the definition of psychology as stated in the textbook?

Answer 2

The answer should indicate that psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. John Watson was the founder of behaviorism. He believed that mental processes could not be studied scientifically because they were not objectively observable. He believed that, if psychology was to be a science, it should confine its subject matter to objectively observable behavior. For this reason, Watson would disagree with the definition of psychology as presented in the textbook. In fairness to Watson, however, he lived before modern brain-scanning devices allowed psychologists to make objective observations of the neurological processes underlying cognition.

Question 3

While the underlying views of B. F. Skinner about the human condition differ markedly from humanistic views, interestingly his goals for the advancement of humanity are remarkably similar. Compare and contrast Skinner's views with humanistic psychology.

Answer 3

The answer should provide the following information: (1) Skinner denied the existence of free will. According to Skinner, behavior was largely determined by a history of reinforcement; (2) Humanistic psychologists, such as Maslow and Rogers, believed that humans have free will and are active agents in trying to fulfill their own potential; (3) Nevertheless, both Skinner and the humanists shared an optimistic goal that psychologists could help improve the human condition. This is in contrast to the dark views of humanity advanced by Freud; (4) Skinner and the humanists attempted to better humanity using radically different methods. Skinner advocated arranging environments in which desirable behavior would be reinforced. The principles of reinforcement thus could be used to increase social welfare. Humanistic psychologists, on the other hand, focused on the power of a person's free choice in reaching his or her full potential, and developed therapies to facilitate this process.

Question 4

Discuss Sigmund Freud's influence on the field of psychology. What are the contributions and critiques of psychoanalytic theory?

Question 5

Contrast the views of Plato and Aristotle on the nature vs. nurture debate. What position do modern psychologists take on this issue?

Question 6

Describe four non-research career specializations within psychology.

Question 7

Discuss how technological advancements, along with work in the field of linguistics, advanced cognitive psychology and ultimately led to the downfall of behaviorism as the dominant field within psychology.

Question 8

Discuss some benefits that behaviorism brought to the field of psychology. Then, discuss some problems associated with behaviorism.

Question 9

Differentiate between a structuralist and functionalist approach to understanding consciousness. Identify the founders of both approaches and the earlier influences that gave rise to these schools of psychology.

Question 10

Discuss the growing impact on psychology of women and non-White minorities, and identify some pioneering women and minorities within psychology.

Question 11

How might an evolutionary psychologist explain human behavior that is largely detrimental to the individual or the culture, such as aggression or a preference for a high-fat diet?

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