Deck 10: Becoming Human: the Ape-Hominin Transition

Question 1

The anterior gluteal muscles, which attach to the ilium, are rotated __________ in the biped.

A) to the front and sides of the pelvis
B) to the bottom and sides of the pelvis
C) to the top and center of the pelvis
D) to the rear and center of the pelvis

Answer 1

to the front and sides of the pelvis

Question 2

In order to stand on two legs, a quadruped must __________.

A) bend its legs
B) flex its spine backward
C) hold onto something to keep balance
D) place its feet widely apart

Answer 2

bend its legs

Question 3

Compared to the pelvis of a quadruped, the pelvis of a biped is __________.

A) extremely dense and heavy
B) elongated and fan-shaped
C) broader and bowl-shaped
D) almost the same except for the number of bones

Answer 3

broader and bowl-shaped

Question 4

In modern humans the nuchal plane is __________.

A) a horizontally flat region on the bottom of the skull
B) a convex bulge in the skull to accommodate an enlarged brain
C) a group of spiky bones to which the muscles of the neck attach
D) the back of the skull

Question 5

Among the earliest developments in the hominin family is __________.

A) bipedal locomotion
B) prehensile hands
C) expanded cranial capacity
D) reduced facial prognathism

Question 6

The constraints of the narrow, bipedal pelvis on the width of the birth canal may be an evolutionary incentive for __________.

A) increased pair bonding
B) the birth of more fully developed infants
C) shorter gestation periods
D) socially assisted birthing

Question 7

The Hominin family includes __________.

A) humans as well as the great apes
B) all extinct human ancestors after the split from the last common ancestor with chimps
C) humans as well as all extinct ancestors after the split from the last common ancestor with chimps
D) all primate ancestors of humans

Question 8

The differences in the pelvis of a biped compared to the pelvis of a quadruped are needed to __________.

A) make walking faster
B) improve balance
C) make the pelvis narrower
D) rotate the legs under the body

Question 9

While walking, a biped must always balance its weight __________.

A) on two legs
B) on one leg
C) by shifting its weight directly above the leg on the ground
D) by swinging its arms

Question 10

Quadrupedal primates have a(n) __________ spine.

A) straight
B) s-shaped curved
C) inflexible
D) c-shaped curved

Question 11

The fundamental adaptation that defines hominins is __________.

A) tool use
B) complex social interaction
C) increased cranial capacity
D) upright posture

Question 12

The __________ is comprised of fused vertebrae and forms the back of the pelvis.

A) thorax
B) c-curve
C) sacrum
D) patella

Question 13

Bipeds have a(n) __________ spine.

A) elongated
B) s-shaped curved
C) c-shaped curved
D) straight

Question 14

Today, humans are the only bipedal mammals.

Question 15

In bipeds, the lumbar vertebrae are enlarged in order to __________.

A) more effectively bear weight
B) provide a strong anchor for the upper legs
C) enlarge the birth canal in females
D) correct for balance problems

Question 16

What two skeletal features reveal the orientation of the skull to the vertebral column?

A) neck vertebrae, foramen magnum
B) nuchal plane, occipital bone
C) innominate bone, foramen magnum
D) nuchal plane, foramen magnum

Question 17

The vertebral column is made up of the __________ regions.

A) neck, thorax, lower back and pelvic
B) neck and spinal
C) lumbar and cervical
D) neck, spinal and sacrum

Question 18

One change necessary to the vertebral column for bipeds is __________.

A) denser bone material in vertebrae
B) an S-shaped curvature
C) a straightening of the vertebral column
D) a complete reconfiguration of muscle attachments

Question 19

Direct physical evidence of human ancestors is obtainable only through __________.

A) environmental reconstruction
B) the fossil record
C) primate studies
D) conjecture

Question 20

The __________ is the hole in the occipital bone through which the spinal cord connects to the brain.

A) ischium
B) foramen magnum
C) coccyx
D) nuchal cavity

Question 21

According to the Lovejoy model of bipedal evolution the number of ape species have declined compared to monkeys because

A) monkeys can subsist on lower quality foods
B) monkeys are faster and more successful at escaping predators
C) apes reproduce at a much slower rate than monkeys
D) several ape species transitioned into hominin species

Question 22

Over time, hominin legs lengthened relative to trunk lengths which __________.

A) made climbing more difficult
B) increased the energy requirements of hominins
C) increased stride length and efficiency
D) decreased the dangers presented by predators

Question 23

The foot skeleton is comprised of __________.

A) tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges
B) tarsals and phalanges
C) tibiae and phalanges
D) carpals, metacarpals and phalanges

Question 24

Which of the following is NOT a scenario for the evolution of bipedalism?

A) energy efficiency
B) tool making
C) ecology
D) sexual selection

Question 25

The most influential of the dietary models for bipedalism is __________.

A) the advantages of hunting with weapons
B) standing upright to collect fruit from trees
C) standing to collect handfuls of grass seeds
D) standing upright to increase the line of sight when looking for food

Question 26

The last common ancestor of humans and African apes was probably __________.

A) a terrestrial ape
B) either arboreal or a knucklewalker
C) larger than either humans or African apes
D) not a brachiator

Question 27

While the femur of a quadruped is straight, the femur of a biped is __________.

A) curved
B) angled inward to the knee
C) reduced at the knee
D) angled outward to the knee

Question 28

Which of the following is NOT an element of the "radiator" hypothesis?

A) bipeds expose less of their bodies to the sun than quadrupeds
B) bipeds are farther from the ground and exposed to cooling air
C) body hair traps cooling moist air close to the skin
D) the blood flow system bipeds have to move blood against gravity also works to cool the brain

Question 29

The length of the arms decreased in hominin species over time because __________.

A) shorter arms improve balance
B) shorter arms increased tool-making ability
C) the arms were no longer weight bearing
D) the arms were used for carrying items

Question 30

The leg attained modern human proportions with the origin of __________.

A) Ardipithecus ramidus
B) Homo erectus
C) Australopithecus afarensis
D) Homo sapiens

Question 31

A possible ecological scenario for the evolution of bipedalism is that increasing aridity lead to deforestation and the need to travel long distances to find fruit.

Question 32

Which of the following have NOT been suggested as a reason for the development of bipedalism?

A) energetic
B) sexual selection
C) diet
D) tool making

Question 33

According to Dean Falk and Glenn Conroy bipedalism could have developed to __________.

A) make it possible to reach fruit in trees
B) see over tall grasses
C) dissipate heat
D) carry infants

Question 34

Most scientists agree that energy efficiency is the prime mover for the development of bipedalism.

Question 35

Which of the following is NOT an aspect of Isbell and Young's model based on crossing open territory to access food sources?

A) an increase in body size
B) an increase in the size of social groups
C) fusion-fission social groups
D) increased efficiency of bipedal locomotion

Question 36

A bipedal foot contains both a transverse and a longitudinal arch.

Question 37

If the last common ancestor of chimpanzees and hominins was not a knucklewalker, knucklewalking developed before hominins existed.

Question 38

Foot arches help reduce the incidence of __________ to the lower leg.

A) sprains
B) torn muscles
C) bone spurs
D) fatigue fractures

Question 39

Bipedal walking is more energy efficient __________.

A) than knucklewalking
B) than quadrupedalism
C) when running
D) than arboreal locomotion

Question 40

One sexual selection model for bipedalism is __________.

A) it allows females to carry infants
B) it allows males to more effectively protect females
C) it makes males more effective fighters in mating contests
D) it makes males look more impressive during display behavior

Question 41

A problem with the technological intelligence model for hominin brain expansion is __________.

A) that the tools suggested by the model are too complex for a small-brained hominin to produce
B) that tools were not used earlier than 2.5 million years ago
C) that simple tool use and production requires very little intelligence
D) that bipedalism occurred much earlier, and brain expansion occurred much later than the appearance and widespread use of stone tools

Question 42

Tool use is an example of __________.

A) ecological intelligence
B) social intelligence
C) technical intelligence
D) environmental intelligence

Question 43

Primates have the greatest __________ of any mammalian group.

A) brain size
B) birth success rate
C) genetic complexity
D) brain to body size ratio

Question 44

One problem with social intelligence models is that __________.

A) chimpanzees do not display cultural behaviors
B) orangutans are among the largest brained primates, but live alone
C) primates who employ deception quickly become outcasts
D) hominin social groups were probably very small

Question 45

One problem with ecological intelligence models is __________.

A) that the correlation between greater intelligence and foraging efficiency is weak
B) that frugivorous primates are rarely more intelligent than other primates
C) that fruit probably played only a small part in the diets of Miocene primates
D) that the most accepted models for the origins of hominins are set on open savannas

Question 46

The transition to bipedality happened because the species ancestral to hominins was a marginal forager who faced extinction if it did not change quickly.

Question 47

Evidence exists that frugivorous primate species have __________ than folivorous primate species.

A) more efficient calorie-burning metabolisms
B) greater mobility
C) larger digestive systems
D) greater brain to body ratios

Question 48

The ability to use cognitive skills to extract food and other resources by modifying the environment is referred to as __________.

A) technical intelligence
B) social intelligence
C) intelligence quotient
D) ecological intelligence

Question 49

The Lovejoy model claims that pair bonding and male provisioning of females is the force behind the evolution of bipedalism.

Question 50

The ability to place oneself into the mind of others is known as __________, which is necessary for possessing an awareness of the knowledge or cognitive ability of others and for imitating or teaching others.

A) psychological ability
B) theory of mind
C) social intelligence
D) manipulation

Question 51

One potential problem with the Lovejoy model is that __________.

A) it is well established that early hominins were not monogamous
B) it is not possible for males to know exactly when females are fertile
C) sexual dimorphism suggests that early hominins may not have been monogamous
D) early hominins may have reproduced too slowly for the model to work

Question 52

Which of the following is NOT a component of social intelligence models?

A) deception
B) manipulation of social relationships
C) ethical codes
D) complex social groups

Question 53

The concept of homology suggests that ___________ and ___________ should be central to using primate studies to reconstruct hominin behavior.

A) diet, environment
B) intelligence, social complexity
C) morphology, diet
D) social complexity, genetic comparisons

Question 54

The anatomical shift from quadrupedalism came after a behavioral shift began in the ape ancestor of the hominin line.

Question 55

Research has produced evidence that higher primates use deception __________ than lower primates.

A) more often
B) less often
C) at about the same rate
D) for different reasons

Question 56

__________ suggest that the key impetus for the expansion of the brain was the selective advantage of being able to navigate and find food in a highly complex environment.

A) Dietary models
B) Ecological intelligence models
C) Environmental intelligence models
D) Movement and provisioning models

Question 57

Research suggests that differences in tool use among chimpanzee populations is the result of __________.

A) genetic differences
B) cultural traditions
C) environmental differences
D) intelligence

Question 58

An important component of many ecological models is stress on the ability of frugivorous species to __________.

A) find sufficient food year around
B) compete with other species for limited fruit
C) remember food locations as fruit ripens
D) travel efficiently to sources of food

Question 59

Currently, the most widely accepted models for the development of hominin intelligence are __________.

A) technological intelligence models
B) ecological intelligence models
C) social intelligence models
D) no models for intelligence are widely accepted currently

Question 60

Terry Deacon's research has shown that brain size in early hominin species __________.

A) was a linear progression favoring greater intelligence
B) was largely the result of sexual dimorphism
C) was the result of brains scaled to different body sizes in hominin species
D) both increased and decreased over time until the appearance of modern humans

Question 61

Summarize energetic efficiency scenarios for the evolution of bipedalism. What are some advantages and disadvantages of these scenarios?

Question 62

What environmental changes are taking place in Africa during the time that bipedalism developed and the hominin line diverged? How might these changes have favored bipedalism?

Question 63

Describe the anatomical changes that are required for the transition from quadrupedalism to bipedalism. Be sure to include changes in the legs, feet, pelvis, spinal column and skull.

Question 64

Natural selection will always select for a bigger brain over other possible solutions if a larger brain is possible.

Question 65

Discuss ecological models for the expansion of primate intelligence. Why have these models become less popular currently?

Question 66

Discuss the technical school of thought for the expansion of primate intelligence. Be sure to include evidence from studies of non-human primates.

Question 67

Discuss the Lovejoy hypothesis for the evolution of bipedalism. What are its strengths and weaknesses?

Question 68

Discuss the role of primate studies in developing models for the origins of bipedalism and human intelligence. In what ways are they valuable? What limitations are there in the use of such studies?

Question 69

Explain the social intelligence model for the expansion of primate intelligence. Be sure to include deception, imitative learning and the theory of mind in your discussion.

Question 70

Outline the "radiator" hypothesis for the evolution of bipedalism. Include both the effects of body orientation of bipeds and blood circulation.

Question 71

Summarize ecological and dietary scenarios for the evolution of bipedalism.