Deck 2: Reasoning

Question 1

What does Kant mean by autonomy? What is the kingdom of ends? To what extent do you think that the world you live in resembles the kingdom of ends? Exactly how does it fall short?

Answer 1

Kant means by autonomy, the ability to choose for one's self. Everyone is free to choose those maxims and laws which he wishes to live by so long as he subjects himself to them and they are rational and universalizable. The kingdom of ends is a possible situation where everyone is a legislator of universal law, because his maxims rational and applicable to all other members of the kingdom, and this very ability to legislate rationally distinguishes each member as an end in themselves. Kant acknowledges this kingdom of ends as a hypothetical, and in today's world it seems very hypothetical. Very few people seem to behave in ways in which every person could behave and not have themselves treated in a way in which they would abhor. People do not always choose to behave according to rational principles, and very few people think at all about anything similar to the categorical imperative to determine the rationality or rightness of their actions.
MILL

Question 2

Many people believe that Kant's theory is usually but not always right, asserting that they need more flexibility in their decision-making. Others reply that if we are going to make exceptions, the point of having a theory is lost, asserting that the reason to have a theory such as Kant's is that it is the only way to avoid rationalizations. Who is right and why?

Answer 2

One might argue that the former is right, because no theory is equipped to deal with every conceivable situation in the correct way. For instance, it seems that Kant's theory would suggest that one ought never to lie at all, and that one ought to lie only when there is a very good reason. And after all, a theory is not guarantee that someone will not engage in rationalization. One might also argue that the latter is right, because we need, especially if universality of a maxim is a principle of a theory, to be consistent in our application of maxims to everyone. If we just get to pick and choose between maxims, why not just reject Kant's theory altogether? It is useful in all situations and must be accepted in all situations. It is better to hold steadfast to a theory which is wrong sometimes than have no theory at all.

Question 3

A categorical imperative is a command that applies __________.

A) Universally
B) Hypothetically
C) Contingently
D) Unilaterally

Answer 3

A categorical imperative is a command that applies A) Universally.

Question 4

How does Mill respond to the objection that his utilitarian doctrine is only fit for swine?

A) He distinguishes between higher and lower pleasures
B) He discusses the superiority of the pleasures of the intellect
C) He notes that the beast's pleasures do not satisfy a human being
D) All of the above

Question 5

According to Kant, morality is based on __________.

A) Sympathy
B) Convention
C) Reason
D) Faith

Question 6

After Kant gives the second formulation of the categorical imperative (noted in the Reading Guide on page 49), he goes on to apply it to the four duties that he has already discussed (on page 47-48, starting with "A man reduced to despair . . ."). How do you think his analysis would go? Do you think the analyses he would give are correct? Why or why not.

Question 7

What is the true purpose of the faculty of reason, according to Kant?

A) To discover truth
B) To pursue happiness
C) To know God
D) To produce a good will

Question 8

What does Mill mean by happiness? What does he mean by pleasure? Do you agree with his view of happiness or of pleasure?

Question 9

Consider the four duties that Kant discusses. How do you think that Socrates would analyze each situation? Defend your answer. If you find that there would be points of disagreement, who do you think is right and why?

Question 10

Kant indicates that the exercise of reason can lead to more trouble than happiness. Is that a reason to abandon reason or to keep developing it, according to Kant? Do you agree? Why or why not?

Question 11

According to Mill, "utility" and "pleasure" are to be considered in opposition.

Question 12

Not all types of pleasure are of equal utility.

Question 13

According to Kant, the only thing good in itself is a good will.

Question 14

How does Mill argue that human beings are capable of higher pleasures?

A) He discusses poetry and philosophy
B) He discusses art and beauty
C) He notes that few humans would trade even their worst day for the best day as a brute
D) He does not make this argument.

Question 15

Mill's theory, like Kant's (Reading 2.1), is a comprehensive ethical theory. Therefore, a parallel question about how to respond to its comprehensiveness arises. The issues, again, are as follows: Many people believe that Mill's theory is usually but not always right, asserting that they need flexibility in their decision making. Others reply that if we are going to make exceptions, the point of having a theory is lost, asserting that the reason to have a theory such as utilitarianism is that it is the only way to avoid rationalizing. Who is right and why?

Question 16

When comparing two kinds of pleasure, how does Mill say that we determine which is more valuable? When we apply his method, what does he think that we will discover about the superior pleasures? What are some examples of superior pleasures? Do you agree that they are superior to other pleasures?

Question 17

Kant discusses two possible answers that one might give to the question "What is the purpose of existence?" What are they? Which does he think is the right answer? Do you agree? What does he think we need to fulfill that purpose?

Question 18

What makes an action right, according to Mill?

A) It is done in accordance with duty
B) It tends to promote happiness
C) It is chosen freely
D) It is chosen by a good will

Question 19

According to Kant, we should only treat others as means to an end.

Question 20

Does Mill's theory imply that sometimes it is right to lie (or cheat, or steal, or murder)? Explain your answer. Do you think that that makes Mill's theory stronger or weaker? Why?

Question 21

How would you characterize Nietzsche's writing style? Do you see it as a problem or do you think it is essential to the points he is trying to make (or both)? Why? An ad hominem criticism, usually considered a fallacy, occurs when one attacks the person making an argument rather than directly criticizing the argument itself. Does Nietzsche rely on this strategy? If so, why do you think he uses it? Does it strengthen or weaken his case?

Question 22

Damasio notes that altruistic behavior is often rewarding. What potential challenge does this present for altruistic behavior? Does Damasio believe this challenge shows that there is no true altruism? Explain his reasoning. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.

Question 23

What, according to Nietzsche, are the problems with trying to provide a "rational foundation for morality?" What criticisms does he level against moral philosophers?

Question 24

What does Nietzsche think about synthetic a priori judgments?

A) They re possible, but cannot be described
B) Kant was right about synthetic a priori judgments
C) They should not be possible
D) We have a right to them

Question 25

Nietzsche equates the will to power with __________.

A) Kantian morality
B) Life itself
C) The European consciousness
D) The fundamental principal of society

Question 26

Prinz agrees with the Kant's claim that we ought to accept categorical oughts because they are rational.

Question 27

Prinz argues that if one cannot provide reasons for his or her position in moral philosophy, that position must be cast out, as if it were manifestly false.

Question 28

Nietzsche criticizes philosophical striving for truth and knowledge and thinks that other things are more valuable. What are they? Do you agree with Nietzsche that they conflict with truth and that they are more valuable than truth?

Question 29

Damasio contrasts the "high-reason view" with the __________.

A) Common sense view
B) Emotional intelligence view
C) Critical view
D) Somatic marker view

Question 30

Damasio cites this philosopher as holding the "high-reason" view, according to which solutions to problems should be found in pure reason and not emotion.

A) Plato
B) Descartes
C) Kant
D) All of the above

Question 31

How does Nietzsche criticize Kant and philosophy in general? Do you find anything in his criticism that you agree with? If so, what and why? If not, why?

Question 32

What does Nietzsche think that the essence of life is? Do you agree with any of his characterizations? Why or why not?

Question 33

Damasio's main thesis is that proper moral theorizing must be unencumbered by passion.

Question 34

What two general types of morality does Nietzsche identify?

A) Noble and contemptible
B) Christian and Non-Christian
C) Good and evil
D) Master and slave

Question 35

What are master and slave moralities? Which do you think is more valuable and why? Give contemporary examples of each.

Question 36

Damasio contends that the mind is a blank slate at the start of the reasoning process.

Question 37

Why does Nietzsche complain about Kant's explanation of the synthetic a priori?

A) It is a circular explanation
B) It is far too wordy
C) It is full of German foolishness
D) It is overly pious

Question 38

According to Damasio, what role do somatic markers play in allowing us to undertake an action that has a negative consequence in the short term but a positive consequence in the long term? If moral decision-making also sometimes requires short-term pain for long-term gain, what role should somatic markers play in morality?

Question 39

Which are not characteristics of the master morality?

A) Pity
B) Noble
C) Value-creating
D) Free

Question 40

What are somatic markers? What, according to Damasio, do they do for us? Should moral decisions rest on somatic markers, or would we be better off studying probability and statistics? Explain.

Question 41

Which of the following models of moral decision-making is advocated by Greene?

A) The utilitarian model
B) The deontological model
C) The dual-process model
D) The emotivist model

Question 42

According to Green, Young and Sommers when respondents give deontological answers to the trolley scenario, their answers were based on __________.

A) Higher-order reasoning
B) An emotional response
C) State dependent learning
D) Classic Conditioning

Question 43

According to Whitt, which is a reason the dominant knowledge system rejects alternative epistemologies?

A) It has a spiritual component
B) It does not distinguish between fact and value
C) It uses many modes of knowledge transmission
D) It has a tendency for reductivist scientism

Question 44

Prinz defends the view known as sentimentalism. This is the view that __________.

A) Sentiment is a faculty of will that enfeebles the minds of the confused
B) The disposition to feel approbation or disapprobation is a precondition to the proper application of the terms "right" and "wrong"
C) Emotions must be checked if one is to make an unbiased moral decision
D) The view that most of the social evils of the day, racism, crime, poverty, are due to improper parenting and the lack of proper socialization

Question 45

Greene and Young's basic finding is that when we give deontological answers to moral problems, our answers are based on emotions that are not morally relevant to the problem at hand.

Question 46

Greene and Young argue that Kantian responses to moral problems are based feelings, and therefore irrelevant to moral decision-making.

Question 47

If you adopt Prinz's view about the role of emotions, how might this change your views of the nature of ethics?

Question 48

Prinz agrees with Plato, that sensation and sentiment merely distract the soul from moral truth.

Question 49

What does Prinz claim is the relationship between morals and emotions? What three reasons does he give? Which is strongest, and why?

Question 50

Greene and Young argue that utilitarian responses to moral problems are based on complex reasoning, and therefore represent a higher level of moral development.

Question 51

If Prinz is right about the role of emotions, what would that imply for utilitarian and deontological theories? Explain your answer.

Question 52

Which is a cognitive virtue only in indigenous knowledge systems?

A) Respect
B) Logic
C) Accuracy
D) Reduction

Question 53

According to Whitt, what is not a characteristic of indigenous knowledge systems?

A) Non-anthropocentric
B) Strong fact-value dichotomy
C) Accepting of multiple epistemologies
D) Stories as ways if transmitting knowledge

Question 54

If Prinz is right about the role of emotions, what light would that shed on how parents teach young children to share?

Question 55

Prinz suggests that one reason we think killing is worse than letting another die is because killing arouses stronger negative emotions. But the reverse may be true; perhaps our thinking drives our emotional response. A stronger claim may be made for reflection driving emotion. What do you think, and why? What impact might your answer have on your own moral judgments?

Question 56

What do Greene and Young mean by "debunking"? What do they mean by "Kantian intuitions?" What intuitions about the trolley problems are Kantian? Do you think they have successfully debunked Kantian intuitions? Explain.

Question 57

Is it a bias to think that the welfare of your own family is more important than the welfare of other people? If so, is it a bias w would be wise to overcome? If not, why not? Compare your answers to what Green says.

Question 58

Whitt argues that there are different ways of knowing and different knowledge systems.

Question 59

Which of the following best captures the point of Prinz's paper?

A) Emotions can sway our moral judgments
B) Moral attitudes are based on moral emotions
C) Moral judgments have an emotional foundation
D) All of the above

Question 60

Are the differences between the three trolley cases (the standard and the footbridge cases from the introduction, and the trapdoor case mentioned near the end) morally relevant? Why or why not? If you think they are, what are the relevant differences? If you think they are not, would you do the same thing in all three scenarios? Explain.

Question 61

What is not one of the directions in reacting to racism one can take, according to Piper?

A) Emotional detachment
B) Physical distance
C) Cognitive distortion
D) Defensive anger

Question 62

What is not something Dr. Stockmann accuses his brother of?

A) Being too concerned for his reputation
B) Engaging in sharp practice
C) Asking him to lie
D) Asking him to stand up for himself

Question 63

Piper thinks that we are more conscious of covert racism today than in previous generations.

Question 64

What is not a reason the mayor does not want the letter published?

A) Everyone knows about its content already
B) It will be too costly to fix the baths
C) It will take too long to fix the baths
D) He wants to direct public affairs in the way he sees fit

Question 65

Dr. Stockmann's brother is also the family priest.

Question 66

How does Piper describe the way others interact with her as she comes into the party?

A) They refuse to talk to her
B) They reject her
C) They scrutinize her
D) They welcome her with open arms

Question 67

How do other black Piper meets socially expect her to prove her blackness?

A) By passing the Suffering Test
B) By passing the Blackness Test
C) By acting black
D) By passing the Anger Test

Question 68

How do you think that someone operating within an indigenous knowledge system would respond to Millian (Reading 2.2) and/or Kantian (Reading 2.1) ethics? Explain your answer.

Question 69

What reasons does the mayor offer against publishing the letter? Are they good reasons? Why or why not? What principles does the mayor seem to be operating under? Do you think that the principles keep him on the right path or lead him astray? Answer the same questions for Dr. Stockmann.

Question 70

Whitt endorses the idea that __________.

A) There is only one system of knowledge
B) The way knowledge is conceived has political and ethical implications
C) Indigenous knowledge systems suffer from reductivist scientism
D) There are few if any ethical or political implications for how we conceive knowledge

Question 71

Do you think that it is possible to feel shame even when you have done nothing wrong or guilt over an unfair accusation? Why or why not? How would Piper answer those questions? What relevance does her answer have for understanding racism?

Question 72

Piper relates several instances of whites and blacks confronting the possibility of mixed ancestry. What does she think their responses show about racism and the feelings of self-worth that are implicated? Have you encountered or experienced such a confrontation? Did you come to a similar conclusion? If you had never thought of the possibility as applied to yourself before, how did you respond to her discussion?

Question 73

What is not an emotion Piper feels at being ridiculed for her light skin?

A) Indignation
B) Grief
C) Shame
D) Anger

Question 74

Are there factual statements that are devoid of values? Are there statements of value that are completely nonfactual? What are some examples? (If you don't think there are any, try to answer that question from the perspective of a positivist). Are these kinds of statements unusual exceptions, or are they pervasive?

Question 75

What is not a reason Dr. Stockmann wishes to publish the letter?

A) He thinks it is right
B) It is the honest thing to do
C) His wife wants him to
D) The water is unhealthy

Question 76

Is it ever acceptable to withhold important information from the public? Why or why not?

Question 77

What emotional responses to racism tend to be prevalent, according to Piper? Have you encountered or experienced any of these responses? Do you agree with her characterization of acts of racism? Why or why not?

Question 78

Why is Mrs. Stockmann concerned after the encounter with the mayor?

A) Dr. Stockmann could lose his job
B) The mayor is right after all
C) Dr. Stockmann is going to do what the mayor asks
D) Petra is getting involved

Question 79

What does Whitt mean by "cognitive virtue"? What kinds of cognitive virtues does she discuss? List at least three things that you think are cognitive virtues and explain why you think they are cognitive virtues.

Question 80

What is a knowledge system? What are the characteristics of the dominant knowledge system and the indigenous knowledge system? How, according to Whitt, does the dominant knowledge system lead to the events described in each of the exhibits?