Deck 7: States of Consciousness

Question 1

After being bitten by his neighbor's dog, Miguel experienced fear at the sight of that dog but not at the sight of other dogs. This best illustrates the process of

A) extinction.
B) discrimination.
C) conditioned reinforcement.
D) latent learning.

Answer 1

B

Question 2

Conditioning seldom occurs when a ________ comes after a(n) _____.

A) CS; US
B) UR; CS
C) secondary reinforcer; operant behavior
D) negative reinforcer; operant behavior

Answer 2

A

Question 3

If you have a "frightening experience" immediately after hearing a strange sound, your fear may be aroused when you hear that sound again. This best illustrates

A) generalization.
B) spontaneous recovery.
C) classical conditioning.
D) the law of effect.

Answer 3

C

Question 4

Some teachers have reduced the disruptive classroom behavior of students by imposing a time-out following disruptive behavior. In this case, the time-out is a

A) conditioned reinforcer.
B) negative reinforcer.
C) primary reinforcer.
D) punishment.

Question 5

Blinking in response to a puff of air directed to your eye is a

A) UR.
B) US.
C) CR.
D) CS.

Question 6

A pigeon receives food for pecking a key, but only rarely and on unpredictable occasions. This best illustrates

A) generalization.
B) latent learning.
C) partial reinforcement.
D) higher-order conditioning.

Question 7

Children who are promised a payoff for playing with an interesting toy have later been observed to play with the toy less than those who are not promised the reward. This provides evidence for the role of ________ in operant behavior.

A) spontaneous recovery
B) primary reinforcers
C) cognitive processes
D) negative reinforcers

Question 8

Airline frequent flyer programs that reward customers with a free flight after every 50,000 miles of travel illustrate the use of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

A) fixed-interval
B) variable-interval
C) fixed-ratio
D) variable-ratio

Question 9

For professional baseball players, swinging at a pitched ball is reinforced with a home run on a ________ schedule.

A) fixed-interval
B) variable-interval
C) fixed-ratio
D) variable-ratio

Question 10

The infant Albert developed a fear of rats after a white rat was associated with a loud noise. In this example, fear of the white rat was the

A) US.
B) UR.
C) CS.
D) CR.

Question 11

Researchers condition a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a(n)

A) negative reinforcer.
B) conditioned stimulus.
C) conditioned reinforcer.
D) unconditioned stimulus.

Question 12

An organism's ability to mentally anticipate that a US will follow a CS is most likely to be highlighted by a(n) ________ perspective.

A) Evolutionary
B) Behaviorist
C) cognitive
D) neuroscience

Question 13

An empathic husband who sees his wife in pain will exhibit some of the same brain activity she is showing. According to many researchers, this best illustrates the functioning of

A) cognitive maps.
B) spontaneous recovery.
C) mirror neurons.
D) extrinsic motivation.

Question 14

If children get attention from their parents for doing cartwheels, they will repeat the trick in anticipation of more attention. This best illustrates

A) spontaneous recovery.
B) respondent behavior.
C) operant conditioning.
D) latent learning.

Question 15

You repeatedly hear a tone just before having a puff of air directed to your eye. Blinking to the tone presented without an air puff is a

A) UR.
B) US.
C) CR.
D) CS.

Question 16

If you get violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, you will probably develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where you ate or to the sound of music you heard there. This best illustrates that associative learning is constrained by

A) intrinsic motivation.
B) biological predispositions.
C) conditioned reinforcers.
D) the law of effect.

Question 17

Matt regularly buckles his seat belt simply because it turns off the car's irritating warning buzzer. This best illustrates the value of

A) respondent behavior.
B) negative reinforcement.
C) secondary reinforcement.
D) spontaneous recovery.

Question 18

Research participants formed more gut-level liking for Pokémon characters associated with positive rather than negative images. This best illustrates the impact of

A) classical conditioning.
B) the law of effect.
C) negative reinforcers.
D) intrinsic motivation.

Question 19

If one chimpanzee watches a second chimp solve a puzzle for a food reward, the first chimp may thereby learn how to solve the puzzle. This best illustrates

A) operant conditioning.
B) observational learning.
C) respondent behavior.
D) spontaneous recovery.

Question 20

A year after surviving a classroom shooting incident, Angie still responds with terror at the sight of toy guns and to the sound of balloons popping. This reaction best illustrates

A) an unconditioned response.
B) operant conditioning.
C) latent learning.
D) generalization.

Question 21

John
B) Watson believed that psychology should be the science of

A) observable behavior.
B) cognitive processes.
C) genetic predispositions.
D) all of these factors.

Question 22

Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this person was a(n)

A) primary reinforcer.
B) unconditional stimulus.
C) immediate reinforcer.
D) conditioned stimulus.

Question 23

In teaching her son to play basketball, Mrs. Richards initially reinforces him with praise for simply dribbling while standing still, then only for walking while dribbling, and finally only for running while dribbling. She is using a procedure known as

A) generalization.
B) partial reinforcement.
C) spontaneous recovery.
D) shaping.

Question 24

Regarding the impact of watching television violence on children, most researchers believe that

A) aggressive children simply prefer violent programs.
B) television simply reflects, rather than contributes to, violent social trends.
C) watching violence on television leads to aggressive behavior.
D) there is only a weak correlation between exposure to violence and aggressive

Question 25

Punishment ________ the rate of operant responding, and negative reinforcement ________ the rate of operant responding.

A) increases; decreases
B) decreases; increases
C) decreases; decreases
D) has no effect on; has no effect on

Question 26

A cognitive map is a

A) mental representation of one's environment.
B) sequence of thought processes leading from one idea to another.
C) set of instructions detailing the most effective means of teaching a particular concept.
D) biological predisposition to learn a particular skill.

Question 27

Online testing systems and interactive software are applications of the operant conditioning principles of

A) shaping and immediate reinforcement.
B) immediate reinforcement and punishment.
C) shaping and primary reinforcement.
D) continuous reinforcement and punishment.

Question 28

In promoting observational learning, the most effective models are those that we perceive as

A) similar to ourselves.
B) respected and admired.
C) successful.
D) having any of these characteristics.

Question 29

In Watson and Rayner's experiment, the loud noise was the ________ and the white rat was the ________.

A) CS; CR
B) US; CS
C) CS; US
D) US; CR

Question 30

On an intermittent reinforcement schedule, reinforcement is given

A) in very small amounts.
B) randomly.
C) for successive approximations of a desired behavior.
D) only some of the time.

Question 31

Experiments on taste-aversion learning demonstrate that

A) for the conditioning of certain stimuli, the US need not immediately follow the CS.
B) any perceivable stimulus can become a CS.
C) all animals are biologically primed to associate illness with the taste of a tainted food.
D) all of these statements are true.

Question 32

In distinguishing between negative reinforcers and punishment, we note that

A) punishment, but not negative reinforcement, involves use of an aversive stimulus.
B) in contrast to punishment, negative reinforcement decreases the likelihood of a response by the presentation of an aversive stimulus.
C) in contrast to punishment, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response by the presentation of an aversive stimulus.
D) in contrast to punishment, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a response by the termination of an aversive stimulus.

Question 33

In which of the following may classical conditioning play a role?

A) emotional problems
B) the body's immune response
C) helping drug addicts
D) in all of these cases

Question 34

In Pavlov's studies of classical conditioning of a dog's salivary responses, spontaneous recovery occurred

A) during acquisition, when the CS was first paired with the US.
B) during extinction, when the CS was first presented by itself.
C) when the CS was reintroduced following extinction of the CR and a rest period.
D) during discrimination training, when several conditioned stimuli were introduced.

Question 35

If the onset of a light reliably signals the onset of food, a rat in a Skinner box will work to turn on the light. In this case, the light is a ________ reinforcer.

A) Partial
B) Primary
C) conditioned
D) delayed

Question 36

After exploring a complicated maze for several days, a rat subsequently ran the maze with very few errors when food was placed in the goal box for the first time. This performance illustrates

A) classical conditioning.
B) discrimination learning.
C) observational learning.
D) latent learning.

Question 37

The law of effect was most clearly highlighted by

A) Pavlov's studies of conditioned salivation.
B) Garcia and Koelling's research on taste aversion.
C) Skinner's experiments on reinforcement.
D) Watson and Rayner's findings on fear conditioning.

Question 38

Leon's psychology instructor has scheduled an exam every third week of the term. Leon will probably study the most just before an exam and the least just after an exam. This is because the schedule of exams is reinforcing studying according to which schedule?

A) fixed-ratio
B) variable-ratio
C) fixed-interval
D) variable-interval

Question 39

Long after her conditioned fear of dogs had been extinguished, Marcy experienced an unexpected surge of nervousness when first shown her cousin's new cocker spaniel. Her unexpected nervousness best illustrates

A) latent learning.
B) spontaneous recovery.
C) delayed reinforcement.
D) shaping.

Question 40

For operant conditioning to be most effective, when should the reinforcers be presented in relation to the desired response?

A) immediately before
B) immediately after
C) at the same time as
D) at least a half hour before

Question 41

When a conditioned stimulus is presented without an accompanying unconditioned stimulus, ________ will soon take place.

A) Generalization
B) Discrimination
C) extinction
D) aversion

Question 42

Which of the following is a form of associative learning?

A) classical conditioning
B) cognitive learning
C) observational learning
D) all of these types of learning

Question 43

Mirror neurons are found in the brain's ________ and are believed by some scientists to be the neural basis for ________.

A) frontal lobe; observational learning
B) frontal lobe; classical conditioning
C) temporal lobe; operant conditioning
D) temporal lobe; observational learning

Question 44

The "piecework," or commission, method or payment is an example of which reinforcement schedule?

A) fixed-interval
B) variable-interval
C) fixed-ratio
D) variable ratio

Question 45

You teach your dog to fetch the paper by giving him a cookie each time he does so. This is an example of

A) operant conditioning.
B) classical conditioning.
C) conditioned reinforcement.
D) partial reinforcement.

Question 46

In Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, the tone was initially a(n) ________ stimulus; after it was paired with meat, it became a(n) ________ stimulus.

A) conditioned; neutral
B) neutral; conditioned
C) conditioned; unconditioned
D) unconditioned; conditioned

Question 47

Classical conditioning experiments by Rescorla and Wagner demonstrate that an important factor in conditioning is

A) the research participant's age.
B) the strength of the stimuli.
C) the predictability of an association.
D) the similarity of stimuli.

Question 48

One difference between classical and operant conditioning is that

A) in classical conditioning the responses operate on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.
B) in operant conditioning the responses are triggered by preceding stimuli.
C) in classical conditioning the responses are automatically triggered by stimuli.
D) in operant conditioning the responses are reflexive.

Question 49

In Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, the meat served as

A) CS.
B) CR.
C) US.
D) UR.

Question 50

In Garcia and Koelling's studies of taste-aversion learning, rats learned to associate

A) taste with electric shock.
B) sights and sounds with sickness.
C) taste with sickness.
D) taste and sounds with electric shock.

Question 51

Cognitive processes are

A) unimportant in classical and operant conditioning.
B) important in both classical and operant conditioning.
C) more important in classical than in operant conditioning.
D) more important in operant than in classical conditioning.

Question 52

Shaping is a(n) ________ technique for ________ a behavior.

A) operant; establishing
B) operant; suppressing
C) respondent; establishing
D) respondent; suppressing

Question 53

The highest and most consistent rate of response is produced by a ________ schedule.

A) fixed-ratio
B) variable-ratio
C) fixed-interval
D) variable-interval

Question 54

Which of the following statements concerning reinforcement is correct?

A) Learning is most rapid with intermittent reinforcement, but continuous reinforcement produces the greatest resistance to extinction.
B) Learning is most rapid with continuous reinforcement, but intermittent reinforcement produces the greatest resistance to extinction
C) Learning is fastest and resistance to extinction is greatest after continuous reinforcement.
D) Learning is fastest and resistance to extinction is greatest following

Question 55

In Pavlov's original experiment with dogs, salivation to meat was the

A) CS.
B) CR.
C) US.
D) UR.

Question 56

The type of learning associated with Skinner is

A) classical conditioning.
B) operant conditioning.
C) respondent conditioning.
D) observational learning.

Question 57

Which of the following is the best example of a conditioned reinforcer?

A) putting on a coat on a cold day
B) relief from pain after the dentist stops drilling your teeth
C) receiving a cool drink after washing your mother's car on a hot day
D) receiving an approving nod from the boss for a job well done

Question 58

To obtain a reward, a monkey learns to press a lever when a 1000-Hz tone is on but not when a 1200-Hz tone is on. What kind of training is this?

A) Extinction
B) Generalization
C) classical conditioning
D) discrimination

Question 59

Which of the following is an example of reinforcement?

A) presenting a positive stimulus after a response
B) removing an unpleasant stimulus after a response
C) being told that you have done a good job
D) All of these are examples.

Question 60

Learning is best defined as

A) any behavior produced by an organism without being provoked.
B) a change in the behavior of an organism.
C) a relatively permanent change in the behavior of an organism due toexperience.
D) behavior based on operant rather than respondent conditioning.

Question 61

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response that occurs after a specified time has elapsed is a ________ schedule.

A) fixed-ratio
B) variable-ratio
C) fixed-interval
D) variable-interval

Question 62

A choppy stop-start pattern of operant responding is associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement.

A) fixed-ratio
B) ixed-interval
C) variable-ratio
D) variable-interval

Question 63

A young child who is spanked after running into the street learns not to repeat this behavior. In this case, the spanking is a

A) positive reinforcer.
B) negative reinforcer.
C) positive punishment.
D) negative punishment.

Question 64

A neural stimulus is an event or situation that

A) evokes an unconditioned response.
B) signals that an operant response will be reinforced.
C) triggers a conditioned response.
D) elicits no response prior to classical conditioning.

Question 65

A small-town radio disc jockey frequently announces how much money is currently in a jackpot. Every day several randomly selected residents are called and asked to identify the amount, and thereby win it. Those who keep track of the jackpot amount are most likely to be reinforced on a ________ schedule.

A) fixed-ratio
B) variable-interval
C) variable-ratio
D) fixed-interval

Question 66

A dog's salivation at the sight of a food dish is a(n)

A) conditioned stimulus.
B) unconditioned stimulus.
C) unconditioned response.
D) conditioned response.

Question 67

A variable-interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)

A) specified time period has elapsed.
B) unpredictable number of responses has been made.
C) specified number of responses has been made.
D) unpredictable time period has elapsed.

Question 68

A patient who had long feared going into elevators was told by his therapist to force himself to enter 20 elevators a day. The therapist most likely wanted to encourage the ________ of the patient's fear.

A) Generalization
B) latent learning
C) shaping
D) extinction

Question 69

After getting a slight burn from the spark of a flickering campfire, Julie became afraid of getting close to lighted gas stoves. This best illustrates the adaptive value of

A) latent learning.
B) spontaneous recovery.
C) generalization.
D) shaping.

Question 70

A dramatic increase in children's violent play immediately after they viewed a video of the "Power Rangers" illustrates the role of television as a source of

A) respondent behavior.
B) spontaneous recovery.
C) negative reinforcement.
D) observational learning.

Question 71

A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n)

A) specified time period has elapsed.
B) unpredictable time period has elapsed.
C) specified number of responses have been made.
D) unpredictable number of responses have been made.

Question 72

A positive reinforcer is anything that when ________ a response, strengthens the response.

A) introduced before
B) removed after
C) introduced after
D) removed before

Question 73

A partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified number of responses is called a ________ schedule.

A) fixed-ratio
B) variable-ratio
C) fixed-interval
D) variable-interval

Question 74

A conditioned reinforcer gains its reinforcing power through its link with a

A) mirror neuron.
B) primary reinforcer.
C) cognitive map.
D) respondent behavior.

Question 75

A negative reinforcer ________ the behavior it follows.

A) strengthens
B) Eliminates
C) suppresses but does not eliminate
D) has an unpredictable effect on

Question 76

A trainer wants a pigeon to quickly learn to peck a button to obtain food. She also wants to be sure the behavior is resistant to extinction. So, she should use ________ reinforcement until the response is mastered followed by ________ reinforcement.

A) positive; negative
B) negative; positive
C) continuous; partial
D) partial; continuous

Question 77

A CS for sexual arousal is ecologically relevant if it is similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in an organism's

A) cognitive map.
B) natural environment.
C) operant chamber.
D) mirror neurons.

Question 78

A slow but steady rate of operant responding is associated with the ________ schedule of reinforcement.

A) fixed-ratio
B) fixed-interval
C) variable-ratio
D) variable-interval

Question 79

After Pavlov had conditioned a dog to salivate to a tone, he repeatedly sounded the tone without presenting the food. As a result, ________ occurred.

A) Generalization
B) negative reinforcement
C) latent learning
D) extinction

Question 80

After his mother smiles, Jimmy's request for a snack is reinforced. But if his mother is not smiling, his subsequent request for a snack is not reinforced. By indicating that Jimmy's request for a snack will be reinforced, the mother's smile is a

A) primary reinforcer.
B) discriminative stimulus.
C) respondent behavior.
D) cognitive map.