Deck 2: Deductive Reasoning, Prediction, and Making Assumptions

Question 1

The valid form in a conditional deductive argument is asserting the:

A) major premise.
B) antecedent.
C) conclusion.
D) consequent.

Answer 1

antecedent.

Question 2

In a conditional deductive argument, the "then" part of the argument is the:

A) minor premise.
B) consequent.
C) antecedent.
D) conclusion.

Answer 2

consequent.

Question 3

If a scientist studies the changes in organisms over long periods of time due to natural selection, then that scientist is taking an evolutionary approach. Dr. Steven Pinker has studied long-term changes in humans, especially the changes in their behaviors and mental processes. Therefore, Dr. Pinker has taken an evolutionary approach. The argument is sound because:

A) Dr. Pinker is a noted expert on evolution.
B) it involves asserting the consequent.
C) the antecedent has been asserted.
D) natural selection is a well-known theory.

Answer 3

the antecedent has been asserted.

Question 4

If the legendary Bigfoot creature exists, then people will observe it. Jon and Jim saw a Bigfoot on a camping trip to the Pacific Northwest. Therefore, Bigfoot exists. Is this argument valid?

A) No, because it involves asserting the antecedent.
B) Yes, because it involves asserting the antecedent
C) Yes, because it involves asserting the consequent
D) No, because it involves asserting the consequent.

Question 5

When reasoning proceeds from a general rule or principle to a specific case, it is BEST described as:

A) scientific reasoning.
B) inductive reasoning.
C) critical thinking.
D) deductive reasoning.

Question 6

Research shows that if Broca's area in the brain is damaged, then speech production will be disturbed. An elderly man named Toben was referred to a neurologist because he began mumbling and speaking in a slow, halting manner. The neurologist told Toben's family that damage to Broca's area was causing the disturbance in Toben's speech. The neurologist's conclusion is NOT sound because:

A) the argument is valid and the premises are true.
B) both of the argument's antecedents are true.
C) the argument involves asserting the consequent.
D) both of the argument's premises are not true.

Question 7

If a person is a psychologist, then he or she studies behavior. Dr. Albert Bandura, the author of social learning theory, is a psychologist; therefore, he studies behavior. The BEST analysis of these statements is that they:

A) form a sound deductive argument.
B) are not valid because they assert the consequent.
C) are not sound because they assert the antecedent.
D) do not form an argument.

Question 8

A deductive argument expressed in "if-then" form is a(n) _____ argument.

A) valid
B) everyday
C) inductive
D) conditional

Question 9

If a person is a psychologist, then he or she studies behavior. Dr. Albert Bandura, the author of social learning theory, is a psychologist; therefore, he studies behavior. This conditional argument is valid because the:

A) consequent was asserted.
B) antecedent was asserted.
C) consequent was ignored.
D) reasoning was inductive.

Question 10

If Broca's area is destroyed, then speech production will be disturbed. Raoul was in a car accident that left the left frontal language area in his brain almost completely destroyed. Brain scans showed that both Broca's area and Wernicke's area were destroyed. Therefore, Raoul's speech will be disturbed. This argument is sound because:

A) it involves asserting the consequent.
B) all of the premises are true.
C) it is both valid and the premises are true.
D) left hemisphere damage leads to language problems.

Question 11

If Broca's area is destroyed, then speech production will be disturbed. A speech pathologist observed that Jessica's speech was severely disturbed and she was not responding to treatment. The speech pathologist concluded that Jessica probably has brain damage in Broca's area. This conclusion is NOT sound because:

A) the argument involves asserting the consequent.
B) all of the premises in the argument are true.
C) the argument is both valid and the premises are true.
D) left hemisphere damage leads to language problems.

Question 12

In a conditional deductive argument, the "if" part of the argument is the:

A) antecedent.
B) conclusion.
C) minor premise.
D) consequent.

Question 13

Based on the total time hypothesis, a cognitive psychologist predicted that if a group studies a list of words for 10 minutes and another group studies the same list for 5 minutes, then the group studying for longer will later recall more words than the group studying them less. When tested under these conditions, the group studying longer recalled more list words than the group studying them for less time, confirming the psychologist's prediction. What is the BEST analysis of these statements?

A) It is not an argument because not all participants may try to learn the words.
B) It is only a set of claims based on a theory.
C) A sound conclusion has been drawn using a conditional deductive argument.
D) This conditional deductive argument is not valid.

Question 14

A sound deductive argument depends on:

A) the premises being true based on personal experience.
B) the premises being true and the argument having correct logical form.
C) the premises being true, the argument having correct logical form, and the person making the argument agreeing with all the facts.
D) a valid generalization from the individual pieces of evidence.

Question 15

Inductive reasoning is often used to:

A) justify theories.
B) reason from a definition to a specific instance.
C) make predictions from theories.
D) reason from a general principle to a specific experimental outcome.

Question 16

When Broca generalized from his observations of brain damage in "Tan" and other cases to conclude that people with damage to the left frontal region of the brain had trouble speaking, he used _____ reasoning to draw his conclusion.

A) nonscientific
B) faulty
C) inductive
D) deductive

Question 17

Based on modern evolutionary theory, a scientist expects that if two organisms tend to look very similar and to make their living the same way and in similar habitats, then they will likely be more closely related than two organisms that look very different and make their living in different ways. The scientist is:

A) generalizing from the data to form a theory.
B) deducing a prediction from a theory.
C) justifying a theory based on observation.
D) establishing standards of evidence.

Question 18

If someone scientifically studies behavior and mental processes, then that person is taking a psychological approach. Katya scientifically studies behavior and mental processes, so she is taking a psychological approach. Is this a valid deductive argument?

A) Yes, because it involves asserting the antecedent.
B) Yes, because it involves asserting the consequent.
C) No, because not all psychologists study behavior.
D) No, because it is an inductive argument.

Question 19

A sound _____ argument allows a person to draw a conclusion with certainty or that must be true if the premises are true.

A) deductive
B) inductive
C) reductive
D) abductive

Question 20

Deductive reasoning is commonly used in science to:

A) justify theories.
B) make generalizations.
C) make predictions from theories.
D) reason to a tentative conclusion.

Question 21

Jordan said, "Scientists have so far not been able to prove that the Loch Ness monster does not exist, and until that changes, I am going to believe that the monster does exist." Jordan shows the thinking or argumentation error of:

A) arguing from ignorance and reversing the burden of proof.
B) arguing from ignorance and asserting the consequent.
C) engaging in circular reasoning and so needing to draw a new conclusion.
D) asserting the consequent and using an invalid deductive logical form.

Question 22

The "total time" hypothesis proposes that the more time spent studying, the more people learn, with all other things being equal. Based on this hypothesis, a person can predict that if one group studies a list of words for 10 minutes and a second group studies the same list for 5 minutes, then the group studying for 10 minutes will learn:

A) more list words than the group studying for 5 minutes.
B) fewer list words than the group studying for 5 minutes.
C) the same number of list words than the group studying for 5 minutes.
D) no more list words than the group studying for 5 minutes.

Question 23

When experiments compare Bandura's social learning theory of aggression and Lorenz's drive theory of aggression, the results strongly suggest that:

A) the idea of catharsis or venting aggression is a psychological misconception.
B) observing aggressive models has little influence on the behavior of the observer.
C) social learning theory is no longer a valid theory of aggression.
D) drive theory is supported, reinforcing the value of venting aggression.

Question 24

Social learning theory states that if a person observes someone else behaving aggressively, then the person observing the aggressive model will be more likely to behave aggressively. Ben behaves aggressively; therefore, he observed someone behaving aggressively. Is this argument valid?

A) Yes, because it involves asserting the antecedent.
B) Yes, because it involves asserting the consequent.
C) No, because it involves asserting the antecedent
D) No, because it involves asserting the consequent.

Question 25

The cognitive theory of depression proposes that if people have negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves, then they are more likely to experience depression. Paula believes that she is a failure and not worthy of success. Therefore, she is likely to become depressed. Assuming the premises are true, is this a basic argument with a sound conclusion?

A) No, because Paula may not actually be depressed.
B) Yes, it is a deductive argument, making a valid prediction about Paula's condition.
C) Yes, it is an inductive argument, reasoning from Paula's specific case to a theory.
D) No, because it is an inductive argument that asserts the consequent.

Question 26

If someone is a hypochondriac, then that person worries about having diseases that he or she does not have. Lately, Consuela has been worrying about getting a cold although she does not have one. Therefore, Consuela is a hypochondriac. Has a thinking or reasoning error been made in this argument?

A) Yes, in failing to make a basic argument.
B) Yes, in asserting the consequent.
C) No, in asserting the antecedent.
D) Yes, in reasoning from possibility or ignorance.

Question 27

When people are angry, they are likely to raise their voices. Andreas yelled at Shannon; therefore, Andreas was probably angry with Shannon. The thinking or argumentation errors of _____ and _____ are being committed in this example.

A) belief perseverance; confirmation bias
B) belief bias; asserting the consequent
C) arguing from possibility; shifting the burden of proof
D) asserting the antecedent; drawing a sound conclusion

Question 28

According to social learning theory, people tend to increase the frequency of aggressive behaviors when they:

A) have observed another person behaving aggressively.
B) have experienced unfair treatment and develop resentment.
C) are competing against another person who has an unfair advantage.
D) have observed a person compete in a nonviolent sport.

Question 29

In a conditional deductive argument, it is NOT valid to assert the:

A) major premise.
B) conclusion.
C) antecedent.
D) consequent.

Question 30

When a sound deductive argument is valid and the premises are true, the conclusion:

A) must necessarily be true.
B) is generally, but not necessarily true.
C) may or may or not be true, depending on how believable it is.
D) may be true, depending on the circumstances.

Question 31

An applicant for a job reasoned that if she interviewed well, then she would probably be hired for the job. Later, she was hired for the job and concluded that she must have interviewed well. According to conventional rules, the applicant _____ make an error in her deductive reasoning because she asserted _____ in drawing her conclusion.

A) did not; logic based on good, common sense
B) did; the antecedent along with correct logical form
C) did not; the antecedent
D) did; the consequent

Question 32

Karina said, "I think that most people have a special talent. This is because they are very good at doing one particular thing, and the thing that they excel at is quite specific to them." Karina is using the thinking error of _____ in her argumentation.

A) circular reasoning
B) asserting the consequent
C) shifting the burden of proof
D) making an unwarranted assumption

Question 33

When experiments compare Bandura's social learning theory of aggression and Lorenz's drive theory of aggression, the results:

A) often are mixed.
B) do not support either theory.
C) typically support social learning theory.
D) typically support drive theory.

Question 34

Some creationists have argued that because evolutionary biologists and other scientists have not shown that the universe started with the act of some intelligent designer, people should conclude that the universe started the way the creationists have proposed. Which thinking error(s) is being committed in this argument?

A) Shifting the burden of proof and arguing from possibility
B) Making an unwarranted assumption
C) Asserting the antecedent
D) Asserting the consequent and belief bias

Question 35

The experiment in which children viewed adults interact with a "Bobo doll" punching bag provided evidence in support of:

A) Darwin's theory that aggression evolved.
B) Bandura's social learning theory of aggression.
C) Freud's psychoanalytic theory that proposes aggression is an instinct.
D) Lorenz's drive theory of aggression.

Question 36

If a someone is well adjusted, then that person will have high self-esteem. Crystal has high self-esteem; therefore, she is well adjusted. Is there a thinking or argumentation error in this statement?

A) No, because the antecedent has been asserted.
B) No, because not all of the premises need to be true.
C) Yes, because the consequent has been asserted.
D) Yes, because it is just common sense and may not be true.

Question 37

A political candidate stated that she would work to improve education as the "education candidate," and that she understood issues related to education. She further stated that people should vote for her because she was the only candidate who really comprehended education. Has she made a thinking or argumentation error?

A) Yes, her argument was circular.
B) Yes, she asserted the consequent.
C) Yes, she made an unwarranted assumption.
D) No, she drew a well-reasoned conclusion.

Question 38

Roy said, "If lots of people buy tickets to that concert and it begins to sell out, then the band is probably a good one and worth seeing." Within one week, all of the tickets had been sold and Roy was unable to get a ticket. Roy said, "That band must be good. I think I'll get tickets the next time they play near me." Has Roy made a sound deductive argument?

A) No, because Roy did not even get to go to the concert.
B) No, because it is not a valid argument.
C) Yes, it is valid and the premises are taken to be true.
D) Maybe, if it turns out that the band really was good after Roy finally has heard them.

Question 39

Consistent with the predictions of social learning theory, people who _____ tend to increase the frequency of aggressive behaviors.

A) observe another person behaving aggressively
B) experience unfair treatment and develop resentment
C) compete against another person who has an unfair advantage
D) observe a person compete in a nonviolent sport

Question 40

Ron said that because research has not proved that repressed memory does not exist, it will probably be eventually shown to exist; therefore, people should conclude that repressed memory does exist for now. Which kind of thinking error is Ron making?

A) Making an unwarranted assumption
B) Asserting the consequent
C) Arguing from possibility or ignorance
D) Failure to make an argument

Question 41

The leader of the country says that she is honest. She also says, "You should believe what I say because I am the head of the nation's government." Which thinking error is the leader making?

A) Asserting the consequent
B) Shifting the burden of proof
C) Circular reasoning
D) Confirmation bias

Question 42

Making an unwarranted assumption is more likely to occur when a person:

A) has a belief that is consistent with a stereotype or bias about people.
B) makes a counterargument that is particularly disagreeable.
C) asserts the antecedent in a deductive argument.
D) makes all of the premises explicit in an argument.

Question 43

An unwarranted assumption is:

A) any assumption made in the process of drawing a conclusion.
B) a statement made about other people that is based on commonsense belief and that is not necessarily true.
C) a conclusion drawn from the evidence that is not necessarily true and goes past the evidence evaluated.
D) a premise lacking support that is taken for granted and might lead to a different conclusion.

Question 44

The stereotypes that people apply to other individuals often:

A) are valid deductive arguments making warranted assumptions about individuals.
B) are unwarranted assumptions made about the individuals and their groups.
C) involve deductive arguments in which the consequent has been asserted.
D) involve arguing from possibility and shifting the burden of proof.

Question 45

According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory and his idea of repressed memory, if a person has a traumatic experience as a child, then that person will be unable to recall the experience later. Which of the following is the BEST conclusion you can draw about these ideas?

A) Freud's psychoanalytic theory has received some support from laboratory experiments, and it remains the best explanation of people's failure to remember early experiences.
B) Freud's psychoanalytic theory has largely been supported, and the idea of repressed memory has been clearly demonstrated in the laboratory.
C) People are correct to believe that repressed memory often occurs in the general population following a traumatic childhood experience.
D) Freud's ideas have often not been supported, and the idea that repressed memory is widespread is a psychological misconception.

Question 46

While discussing a trip she made to the Pacific Northwest, Dilara told her friend that she met people there who think the Bigfoot creature is real, and that scientists have not proved Bigfoot does not exist. Dilara believes Bigfoot exists. Dilara is making the thinking or argumentation error of:

A) forming an illusory correlation between sightings and Bigfoot's existence.
B) asserting the consequent and falling prey to belief bias.
C) engaging in circular reasoning because she wants to believe in Bigfoot's existence.
D) arguing from possibility and shifting the burden of proof.

Question 47

When Ben and his friend Minh first started going to the ice cream shop at the mall, they made friends with a waitress named Alissa who worked there. They went there often, and one day Ben said to Minh, "I'm hungry. Let's get ice cream at the mall." Minh agreed, but when they arrived, they saw that Alissa was not working. Ben was surprised when Minh didn't order any ice cream and wanted to leave soon after they arrived. An assumption Ben seemed to have made was that Minh:

A) really wanted to get ice cream and did not go just to see Alissa.
B) liked the kind of ice cream served at the ice cream shop.
C) really just wanted to go to the mall and didn't care about ice cream very much.
D) is actually a good friend of Ben's and wanted to go to the ice cream shop with him.

Question 48

Reviews of high-quality scientific research studies have not found that repressed memory exists. Chung said, "Because the research has not proved that repressed memory does not exist, it is likely that it will eventually be shown to exist. Therefore, we should conclude for now that it does exist." What is the main problem with Chung's thinking?

A) He is making a circular argument and showing belief bias.
B) He is asserting the consequent and falling prey to belief bias.
C) He is making an argument from ignorance and shifting the burden of proof.
D) He is failing to make an argument and not providing evidence.

Question 49

Rashid said, "I don't think Jimmie is going to make it through college. He does two sports a year and never misses practice or a game." Rashid did not include a major premise in his argument, and that premise could be an unwarranted assumption that also could change the conclusion. Which of these is the missing major premise?

A) Jimmie is not very good at completing all required college activities.
B) Students who go out for sports are not likely to succeed in college.
C) Many students do not succeed in college and Jimmie is probably one of them.
D) Students who are successful get mostly A's and B's and an occasional C.

Question 50

A popular idea in U.S. education has been that academic achievement depends on students having good self-esteem. In the 1980s, educators raised the self-esteem of students, but researchers observed no improvement in academic performance following increases in student self-esteem. This result shows that:

A) the idea that improving student self-esteem would improve academic performance was an unwarranted assumption and a psychological misconception.
B) research on the self-esteem hypothesis was probably executed poorly and should be replicated using better methods.
C) educators are not the experts on education they claim to be and should not be relied on to make judgments about educational policy.
D) it is difficult to raise student self-esteem high enough that it will improve academic performance.

Question 51

Cierra and Emily went to a local tennis court, only to find two other women who also wanted to use the court. The women decided to play doubles together, and Cierra picked the woman with the most expensive-looking tennis racket as her partner. The woman with the expensive racket ended up missing many more shots than her friend. The unwarranted assumption that Cierra made was:

A) both players would be equally motivated to win.
B) people with more expensive-looking rackets are better tennis players.
C) Emily was better at picking potential teammates than she was.
D) people who go to local tennis courts differ in their abilities.

Question 52

A politician argued that he was the "economy candidate" in the campaign because he understood how the economy works. He said, "Because of my economic savvy, I am the candidate who understands the economy." The politician shows the error of _____ in his form of reasoning or argumentation.

A) circular reasoning
B) argument from ignorance
C) belief perseverance
D) asserting the consequent

Question 53

A clinical psychologist told the wife of a young man, "I am sorry to inform you that your husband is psychotic. Psychotic people have thoughts that are disordered and out of touch with reality. Because your husband's thoughts are very disordered and he seems out of touch with conventional reality, I have concluded that he is psychotic." Which thinking or argumentation errors is this psychologist MOST likely showing?

A) making an unwarranted assumption
B) asserting the consequent
C) arguing from possibility
D) circular reasoning

Question 54

Sierra went to her new doctor complaining of a variety of physical pains and symptoms. After a thorough exam and testing over multiple days, her doctor verified that nothing was wrong with Sierra physically. He noted from her chart that in high school she had reported recurring pains but that medications did little to help. He suspected Sierra was a hypochondriac-a person who repeatedly complains of physical symptoms that actually have a psychological origin-and so referred her to a clinical psychologist. The psychologist used the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5), a widely used method for diagnosing mental disorders to diagnose Sierra with hypochondriasis. Which assumption would have changed the psychologist's mind?

A) Sierra had somatoform disorder called hypochondriasis.
B) The psychiatric manual DSM-5 is the common method for diagnosing mental disorders.
C) Sierra did not have a physical condition causing her symptoms.
D) Sierra actually had a difficult-to-diagnose physical ailment.

Question 55

Gino's therapist diagnosed him with a social anxiety disorder in which he showed symptoms of anxiety and discomfort whenever he had to talk to other people or even be around them. After several weeks of therapy, Gino reported that he felt more confident in social and work situations and was generally feeling better about himself. Within a year, however, Gino returned to the therapist reporting high levels of anxiety. Although the therapist's original diagnosis was correct, which assumption did she make that led her to incorrectly conclude that Gino would be free from future anxiety?

A) Gino had a problem with social anxiety disorder and needed therapy.
B) Gino had only one problem that would be treated by the therapy.
C) Gino was reporting he had something that was bothering him.
D) Gino was the kind of person whom she would like to have as a client.

Question 56

A politician said that the price of gas was too high and was going to get higher in the near future, and that she could solve the "gas crisis." The thinking or argumentation error of _____ is involved in this example.

A) reversing the burden of proof
B) argument from ignorance or possibility
C) confirmation bias
D) failure to make an argument

Question 57

A city official boasted that the city's police force used criminal profiling to solve crimes and, therefore, should have a higher rate of crimes solved than a city that did not use criminal profiling: "Our city has worked hard to solve crimes, using the method of criminal profiling in solving cases. Our city should have a higher rate of solving violent crimes than cities that do not use this scientific technique." A study of the number of violent crimes solved showed the city did not have a higher rate of crimes solved than other cities not using the technique. An unwarranted assumption that the city official made was that:

A) the city could afford expensive techniques for solving crimes, such as criminal profiling, which requires hiring experts.
B) the city really wanted to improve its rate of solving crimes.
C) the city is using criminal profiling.
D) scientific research has actually shown that criminal profiling is effective.

Question 58

Explain what can go wrong if you make an unwarranted assumption in an argument. Illustrate your answer with an example of an unwarranted assumption in an everyday situation.

Question 59

A car salesman said to a customer, "This is the best car our company has ever made. We stand behind this car 100%." The customer then asked, "How do you know that it is so good?" The salesman replied, "I've seen a lot of cars over the years, and this one is the best." The salesman shows the error of _____ in his form of reasoning or argumentation.

A) asserting the consequent
B) making an unwarranted assumption
C) circular reasoning
D) arguing from ignorance or possibility

Question 60

Teresa decided to change her major to psychology. She said, "I know I will do well as a psychology major. I already know a lot about why people act the way they do because I watch TV talk shows that discuss people's problems." What is the missing premise from Teresa's conclusion?

A) If Teresa is a good student, then she will be successful as a psychology major, and she already shows an interest in psychology.
B) If people watch TV talk shows concerning human problems, they will learn scientific psychology.
C) Teresa actually watches a lot of TV talk shows that discuss people's problems.
D) If Teresa has declared a psychology major, then she will likely be successful in her new major.

Question 61

Explain how a scientist would use deductive reasoning to make two separate predictions-one from social learning theory and the other from drive theory of aggression-concerning the level of aggression that would be expected based on each theory while following one group that watches a violent American football game and a second group that watches a gymnastics competition. Comparing the two predictions, which theory would you predict would be supported by the outcome of the experiment?