Deck 4: Perceiving Persons

Question 1

Behavior that communicates a person's feelings without words is called

A) scripted behavior.
B) fine-unit behavior.
C) perceptually salient behavior.
D) nonverbal behavior.

Answer 1

nonverbal behavior.

Question 2

Scripts are often culture-specific. This means that

A) there is a great deal of agreement about the order of events across cultures.
B) the more experience one has with a particular behavior, the more successfully one can execute the relevant script.
C) the more general the script is, the greater cross-cultural consistency it has.
D) the same behaviors may be perceived very differently in different cultures.

Answer 2

the same behaviors may be perceived very differently in different cultures.

Question 3

Research regarding perception of complex systems, such as sporting events, indicates that compared to people who break the event up into gross units, those who break the event up into fine units tend to

A) remember more details about the event.
B) lose sight of the big-picture outcome of the event.
C) rely more on the expectations of others in evaluating the event.
D) enjoy their observation of the event more.

Answer 3

remember more details about the event.

Question 4

Hassin and Trope's (2000) study of physiognomy found that participants assigned traits to others based on their

A) hair style.
B) facial features.
C) perceived age.
D) perceived race.

Question 5

The study of social perception involves consideration of how one individual (X) makes judgments about another individual (Y). The terminology typically used to describe the roles of X and Y are

A) evaluator and actor.
B) perceiver and target.
C) judge and stimulus.
D) rater and subject.

Question 6

Sam Gosling (2008) found that social perceivers often form impressions of people based on all of the following except

A) objects found in their offices.
B) the pitch of their voices.
C) their Facebook pages.
D) their height

Question 7

Research by Zebrowitz and her colleagues on facial appearance has shown that people who have baby-faced features tend to be perceived as

A) warm.
B) intelligent.
C) dishonest.
D) dominant.

Question 8

Todd, considered to have a baby-face, and Martin, viewed as having more mature features, are both being interviewed for the same position in a bank. Which of the following is the most probable outcome?

A) Because of his more mature features, Martin will be recommended for the position.
B) Todd will be recommended for the position because baby-faced individuals are perceived as more honest.
C) Todd will be recommended for the position because baby-faced individuals are judged as more qualified for employment than mature-faced individuals.
D) Their facial features will not impact the hiring decision and the more qualified candidate will get the job.

Question 9

Willis and Todorov (2006) showed college students photos of strangers' faces and found which of the following?

A) Participants were unable to rate the personality of the individuals in the photos when they only saw the faces for less than one second.
B) Even when they saw the photos for less than one second, participants' ratings of the faces were highly correlated with the ratings made by others who were allowed to look at the faces for as long as they wanted to.
C) Participants who only saw the faces for less than one second rated the faces as possessing more negative traits than others who were allowed to look at the faces for as long as they wanted to.
D) The longer it took participants to rate each face, the more accurate their ratings were.

Question 10

Different attributes are ascribed to people who have baby-faced features than to those who have mature facial features. Which of the following has not been offered as an explanation for this phenomenon?

A) Faces that appear happier are perceived as more trustworthy.
B) People overgeneralize attributes of babies to baby-faced adults.
C) People are genetically wired to have a nurturing response to baby-like features.
D) People are positively reinforced by others to perceive baby-faced adults the way they do.

Question 11

Which of the following is not a way in which scripts influence social perception?

A) People use their scripts to help explain behavior.
B) Scripts allow people to discount their expectations.
C) People can use scripts to fill in missing information.
D) Scripts can provide a context for understanding nonverbal behavior.

Question 12

While traveling around the world, Teun shows various people pictures of men and women from his hometown who are smiling and frowning, and he asks these people to infer what emotions the individuals in the pictures are experiencing. According to the research on perceptions of primary emotions, Sven should find that

A) perceptions of the emotions vary widely as a function of the people's culture.
B) perceptions of the emotions are relatively consistent across most cultures.
C) little can be inferred about the emotions unless the behaviors of the individuals in the pictures are also described.
D) little is inferred about the emotions unless the situational contexts of the individuals in the pictures are also described.

Question 13

Fritz is a social psychologist who specializes in studying the processes of social perception. Given this interest, Fritz is least likely to specialize in which of the following research questions?

A) How do employers infer traits and abilities about job candidates based on observing their behavior in a job interview?
B) How do police officers and customs agents make judgments concerning how truthful or deceptive particular individuals are?
C) How are consumers influenced in their choices by the packaging and positioning of different products?
D) How does the performance of athletes vary as a function of their coach's expectations about their ability and potential?

Question 14

As social perceivers, people's impressions of others are

A) formed only after knowing the person for a considerable period of time.
B) uninfluenced by superficial attributes of a person.
C) formed at first encounter and completely unchangeable.
D) influenced by the physical appearance of a person.

Question 15

Andrew tends to view the behavior of others in gross units, whereas Angela tends to break others' behavior down into fine units. Andrew is more likely than Angela to

A) pay more attention to the behavior.
B) detect more meaningful actions.
C) remember fewer details about the behavior.
D) form a more positive impression of an actor.

Question 16

The study of social perception addresses all of the following except

A) how people explain the behavior of others.
B) how people form impressions of others.
C) the strategies people use to create a positive self-image.
D) the way that expectations can distort reality.

Question 17

In research by Pryor and Merluzzi (1985), the script for a first date

A) was more easily recalled and organized by participants with extensive dating experience.
B) varied widely by gender.
C) varied widely by sexual orientation.
D) was similar across cultures.

Question 18

Research by Gray and colleagues (2007) has indicated two dimensions on which people "perceive minds." These dimensions are referred to as

A) depth and breadth.
B) morality and rationality.
C) agency and experience.
D) contextual and focal.

Question 19

All of the following are considered "primary" emotions except

A) happiness.
B) surprise.
C) disgust.
D) anxiety.

Question 20

All of the following could be categorized as sources of "raw data" for social perception except

A) a person's physical appearance.
B) knowledge of what situation a person is in.
C) a person's behavior.
D) accounts given by others about a person.

Question 21

People are more likely to search for explanations for events that are

A) expected.
B) positive.
C) personally relevant.
D) ordinary.

Question 22

Jorge watches his friend Nina interacting with others and makes a situational attribution for her behavior. Jorge believes that

A) Nina's behavior is best explained by the circumstances surrounding the encounter.
B) Nina's way of relating to people stems from particular characteristics of her personality.
C) Nina is not acting the way other people would act in the same situation.
D) Nina's actions are not consistent with the social norms governing that particular situation.

Question 23

Colin and Erin are waiting to meet with their caterer so that they can discuss the menu for their wedding. The caterer is 30 minutes late and still hasn't arrived. Colin suggests that the caterer is probably delayed because of traffic. Erin suggests that the caterer is probably disorganized and unreliable. Colin is making a(n) _____attribution, whereas Erin is making a(n) _____ attribution.

A) dispositional; situational
B) situational; personal
C) expected; unexpected
D) correspondent; dispositional

Question 24

The importance of nonverbal behavior when it comes to social perception can be seen by the fact that email messages

A) are often misinterpreted, especially when the writer is trying to be funny or sarcastic,
B) have a stronger emotional impact on those who read them than do voice mail messages.
C) are typically longer than text messages.
D) are the preferred means of communication among younger but not older Americans.

Question 25

Which of the following has been demonstrated by Henley's (1977) research on touching?

A) Women initiate more touching than men.
B) Men initiate more touching than women.
C) Women initiate more touching than men early in a relationship, but this difference decreases later in the relationship.
D) Lower-status individuals initiate more touching than do higher-status individuals.

Question 26

Cross-cultural research on perception of emotion, such as that conducted by Elfenbein and Ambady (2003), indicates that

A) people are uniformly good at perceiving the emotional states of others based on nonverbal cues, regardless of whether perceivers and targets are from the same culture.
B) people are fairly successful at perceiving the emotional states of individuals from other cultures, but we are better at judging emotions of individuals from our own culture.
C) people are actually better at perceiving the emotional states of individuals from other cultures because they are not distracted by language use and other verbal cues.
D) language comprehension plays a central role in the evaluation of emotion.

Question 27

Jerry makes frequent eye contact with the person to whom he is talking. This is most likely to elicit

A) an impression that Jerry is domineering and likes power.
B) an impression that Jerry is insecure and needy.
C) a positive impression if the person to whom Jerry is talking is a friend, and a negative impression if this person is an enemy.
D) a positive impression if the person to whom Jerry is talking is a woman, and a negative impression if this person is a man.

Question 28

Which of the following is supported by research on deception?

A) People are more accurate at detecting deception if they focus on facial expressions rather than voice cues.
B) Police officers and FBI agents are better at detecting deception than most other people.
C) People tend to have an accurate sense of their lie-detecting abilities.
D) People are more accurate at detecting deception if they focus on body movements rather than facial expressions.

Question 29

The "anger superiority effect" in social perception refers to the finding that

A) people are quicker to look away from an angry face in a crowd than a neutral face.
B) people are quicker to look away from an angry face in a crowd than a happy face.
C) people are quicker to spot an angry face in a crowd than a neutral or happy face.
D) cross-cultural differences in the perception of angry faces are greater than they are for faces with other emotions.

Question 30

A target's "gaze disengagement" tends to lead perceivers to

A) believe that a target is overly confident.
B) rate a target as more physically attractive.
C) have difficulty forming an accurate impression of a target.
D) form a negative impression of a target.

Question 31

Deception is most likely to be detected by attending to which channel of communication?

A) Spoken words
B) Body posture
C) Voice pitch
D) Facial expression

Question 32

According to a survey about lying, people believe that liars tend to fidget and avert their eyes. The problem with relying on these kinds of cues to determine if someone is lying is that

A) People are not good at looking for these signs
B) Truth tellers may be just as likely to exhibit the same kinds of stress in real-life situations.
C) Some people might be "good liars" and not exhibit these behaviors.
D) This strategy does not take voice pitch into account.

Question 33

Lindy is trying to decide whether or not Marisa's behavior is dispositional. If Lindy relies on correspondent inference theory, she would consider all of the following factors except

A) whether Marisa freely chose the behavior.
B) whether Marisa knew she was being observed during the behavior.
C) if Marisa's behavior was expected given the situation.
D) the intended consequences of Marisa's behavior.

Question 34

Research conducted by Hall and colleagues suggests that we tend to believe that dominant people touch others more than do subordinate people, and behavioral data indicate that

A) this expectation is accurate.
B) this expectation leads us to be hesitant to make physical contact during interactions.
C) this expectation is not accurate.
D) this expectation is only accurate regarding male targets, and not for female targets.

Question 35

One of the reasons that we are not very successful at detecting deception is because

A) we focus too much attention on nonverbal cues and not enough on verbal cues.
B) we fail to attend to the nonverbal cues that actually signal deception.
C) we are motivated to believe that others are telling the truth.
D) detecting deception is an evolutionary adaptive strategy.

Question 36

Veronica is talking to her parents about her French professor and claims that he gave her a failing grade on her last paper because he is arrogant, cold, and indifferent to the progress of his students. Veronica is making a(n)

A) personal attribution.
B) situational attribution.
C) external attribution.
D) counterfactual attribution.

Question 37

Bella is a teacher who suspects that a student is trying to deceive her. Under which of the following conditions does Bella have the best chance of being accurate in her attempts to detect whether or not the student is lying?

A) Bella reads a written transcript of the student's story.
B) Bella sees a silent video of the student's face as the student tells the story.
C) Bella reads a written transcript of the student's story and sees a silent video of the student's face as the student tells the story.
D) Bella asks the student to recount her story in reverse chronological order.

Question 38

Research on detecting deception has consistently shown that

A) people are generally very good at distinguishing between truth and lies.
B) there are small individual differences in people's ability to detect lies.
C) people are only slightly better than chance when it comes to distinguishing between truth and lies.
D) experts, like police detectives and judges rarely make errors in lie detection.

Question 39

Which of the following research findings is most consistent with Darwin's hypothesis that the ability to interpret emotion from facial expressions has survival value?

A) People are quicker to recognize angry faces than happy faces.
B) People are better able to interpret emotions from video than still pictures.
C) People are able to identify six primary emotions.
D) People sometimes infer emotions from situations rather than facial expressions.

Question 40

Cross-cultural differences in the perception of nonverbal behavior are least prevalent in which of the following types of judgments?

A) Evaluations of emotions and facial features
B) Interpretations of head-nodding and hand signals
C) Preference for personal space
D) Inferences drawn regarding eye contact

Question 41

According to correspondent inference theory, in which of the following situations would a personal attribution be most appropriate?

A) Serena, a professor, helps students during her office hours.
B) Sally, a naval officer, salutes when her commanding officer enters the room.
C) Sam, a wealthy athlete, is ordered by the court to attend a drug rehabilitation program.
D) Steve, a world renowned playboy, joins a monastery and takes a vow of celibacy.

Question 42

According to the covariation principle, a personal attribution is most likely to result when consistency is _____, consensus is _____, and distinctiveness is _____.

A) low; low; low
B) low; high; high
C) high; low; low
D) high; high; high

Question 43

Kelley's theory of attribution suggests that, in trying to discern personal characteristics from behavioral evidence, people

A) behave like scientists and engage in informal experiments.
B) use cognitive heuristics improperly.
C) usually attribute behavior to both personal and situational factors.
D) fail to adequately consider consensus information.

Question 44

George is leaving his job at Vandalay Industries, a latex manufacturer. According to correspondent inference theory, in which of the following scenarios would you learn the most about George?

A) The company is downsizing and many employees, including George, are being terminated.
B) The company is expanding as a result of record-breaking profits, and compensation for employees in the sales department where George worked has increased 30% this year.
C) By leaving, George will no longer have to work incredibly long hours, in unhealthy air quality, under a demanding and mean supervisor.
D) The company is offering a great retirement deal to all of their senior management and, like the other senior managers, George has decided to retire early.

Question 45

According to the covariation principle, consistent behaviors are attributed to the stimulus when

A) consensus and distinctiveness are low.
B) consensus and distinctiveness are high.
C) consensus is high, but distinctiveness is low.
D) consensus is low, but distinctiveness is high.

Question 46

According to correspondent inference theory, correspondent inferences are most likely to occur when a person's behavior is

A) not freely chosen, expected, and results in many desirable outcomes.
B) freely chosen, expected, and results in few desirable outcomes.
C) freely chosen, unexpected, and results in many desirable outcomes.
D) freely chosen, unexpected, and results in few desirable outcomes.

Question 47

Sophia voted for Barack Obama in the 2008 U.S. Presidential election. She believes that approximately 90% of college students also voted for Obama, when in reality that number is much lower. Sophia's overestimation is consistent with

A) the false-consensus effect.
B) the confirmation bias.
C) the self-fulfilling prophecy.
D) the representativeness heuristic.

Question 48

Although he professes to hate sports, Andy never fails to watch the finals of the America's Cup yachting race. Andy's behavior is

A) high in distinctiveness.
B) low in consistency.
C) high in consensus.
D) low in consensus.

Question 49

You are asked what percentage of psychology majors at your school are female. If you answer this question by thinking of how many female psychology majors come to mind quickly, you are relying on the

A) hindsight bias.
B) fundamental attribution error.
C) availability heuristic.
D) false consensus bias.

Question 50

Monica uses the availability heuristic much more frequently than does Ross. Therefore, Monica is more likely than Ross to

A) rely heavily on situational cues that are available in the stream of behavior she observes.
B) perceive and utilize the available consensus information.
C) make judgments that are more resistant to the false-consensus effect.
D) estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of the ease with which instances of it come to mind.

Question 51

According to the covariation principle, a situational attribution is most likely to result when consistency is _____, consensus is _____, and distinctiveness is _____.

A) low; low; low
B) low; high; high
C) high; low; low
D) high; high; high

Question 52

Abigail loves her social psychology class and thinks that most of the other students in the class love it as well. Lily is in the same class and absolutely hates it. Lily is thoroughly convinced that most of the other students also dislike it. These distorted perceptions are an example of

A) hindsight bias.
B) the confirmation bias.
C) counterfactual thinking.
D) the false-consensus effect.

Question 53

Estimates of the probability that an event will happen based on the ease with which one can recall previous instances of this event reflect the

A) base-rate fallacy.
B) fundamental attribution error.
C) two-step attribution process.
D) availability heuristic.

Question 54

Which of the following reflects the primary question underlying Jones's correspondent inference theory?

A) Do attributions correspond with pre-existing beliefs?
B) Does an individual's beliefs correspond with that individual's behavior?
C) Does an observer infer that an actor's behavior corresponds with the actor's personality?
D) Does an observer infer that an actor's behavior is consistent with that of the observer?

Question 55

Everyone you know seems to love the TV show The Apprentice . You're a huge fan of reality TV as well, as you never miss an episode of The Amazing Race , American Idol , or Project Runway . But every time you watch The Apprentice , you have the same reaction: you hate it with a passion. According to Kelley's (1967) covariation theory of attribution, your dislike of this show would be

A) high in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and high in consistency.
B) low in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and high in consistency.
C) high in consensus, high in distinctiveness, and low in consistency.
D) low in consensus, low in distinctiveness, and low in consistency.

Question 56

When _____ is low, it is difficult for the perceiver to attribute behavior to either the person or the stimulus; instead, the best that can be said is that the behavior was caused by transient circumstances.

A) consensus
B) distinctiveness
C) expectedness
D) consistency

Question 57

Carol is asked to rate her husband in terms of how helpful he is with the household chores. Because she cannot think of a single instance of helpful behavior, she gives him a very low rating. Carol relied on _____ to make her judgment.

A) counterfactual thinking
B) the base-rate fallacy
C) the availability heuristic
D) a confirmation bias

Question 58

In Jones and Davis's correspondent inference theory, observers trying to infer whether a particular behavior corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor would ask all of the following questions except

A) Did the behavior violate any social norms?
B) What were the consequences of the behavior?
C) What is the actor's perception of the behavior?
D) Did the actor freely choose to perform the behavior?

Question 59

According to Kelley's covariation principle

A) actors attribute behavior to the situation, but observers attribute behavior to persons.
B) people fail to use statistical information, instead relying on intuitive theories to make personality inferences.
C) people infer that something is the cause of a behavior if it is present when the behavior occurs and absent when it does not occur.
D) people infer the causes of a behavior as a function of the intended consequences of the behavior.

Question 60

Among your group of friends, Chandler is the only one who is ever late for your weekly game of tiddlywinks. You've noticed that he is late every week and that he is also late for class, parties, movies, weddings, sporting events, and dental appointments. According to Kelley's covariation model of attribution, Chandler's behavior would be described as

A) low in consensus, high in consistency, and low in distinctiveness.
B) low in consensus, high in consistency, and high in distinctiveness.
C) low in consensus, low in consistency, and low in distinctiveness.
D) high in consensus, high in consistency, and high in distinctiveness.

Question 61

In the Jones and Harris (1967) study, participants read essays that either supported or opposed Cuban leader Fidel Castro. Participants were either led to believe that the essay writers had chosen their own stance to write about ( choice condition), or that the writers had been forced to adopt the position put forth in the essay ( forced condition). Which of the following statements about the findings of this study is false ?

A) Only in the choice condition did participants believe that the arguments in the essay were somewhat indicative of the writer's true Castro attitudes.
B) Participants in the choice condition were more likely to believe that the essay revealed information about the writer's true Castro attitudes than participants in the forced condition.
C) Even in the forced condition, participants believed that the arguments in the essay were somewhat indicative of the writer's true Castro beliefs.
D) The findings demonstrate support for the idea of the fundamental attribution error.

Question 62

Which of the following has not been demonstrated in research on counterfactual thinking?

A) Positive mood prompts counterfactuals about how much worse things could have been.
B) Negative mood prompts counterfactuals about how much better things could have been.
C) Counterfactual thoughts can influence how we feel about an event.
D) The things we fail to do are more likely to prompt counterfactuals than the things we do.

Question 63

You hear Tiger Woods doing a radio commercial for Buick. Even though you know that Woods did not write the commercial himself, was paid to provide the voice-over for the commercial, and probably does not drive a Buick in real life, you still think that at some level, at least, Woods must think highly of Buicks. This is an example of

A) actor-observer effect.
B) false consensus bias.
C) availability heuristic.
D) fundamental attribution error.

Question 64

The false-consensus effect is especially strong when

A) predicting the behavior of individuals in other cultures.
B) perceivers bring to mind the attitudes of people they like.
C) the actual percentage of others who agree is low.
D) considering behaviors rather than opinions.

Question 65

The availability heuristic contributes to all of the following except

A) counterfactual thinking.
B) the base-rate fallacy.
C) the false-consensus effect.
D) belief in a just world.

Question 66

Based on research on counterfactual thinking, in which of the following scenarios is Jamal most likely to wonder what life might have been like had he been richer?

A) Financially, Jamal is in the upper-middle class. His parents were slightly wealthier.
B) Financially, Jamal is in the upper-middle class. His parents were lower-middle class.
C) Financially, Jamal is in the working class. His parents were also working class.
D) Financially, Jamal is in the middle class. His parents were extremely rich.

Question 67

Britney wonders if she would have been happier had she married Justin instead of Kevin. This illustrates

A) counterfactual thinking.
B) the fundamental attribution error.
C) the availability heuristic.
D) false-consensus bias.

Question 68

According to the two-step model of the attribution process, people make an

A) automatic first step of weighing situational and personal attributions equally, and then an effortful second step of considering the initial inference.
B) automatic first step of making a personal attribution, and then an effortful second step of considering situational factors.
C) effortful first step of weighing situational and personal attributions equally, and then an automatic second step of making a dispositional inference.
D) automatic first step of making a situational attribution, and then an effortful second step of considering personal factors.

Question 69

LeBron is eating at a restaurant on a first date when his date spills spaghetti all over his lap. Which of the following conclusions would LeBron be most likely to draw if he commits the fundamental attribution error?

A) His date gets nervous on first dates.
B) His date is a slob.
C) His date is even more attractive than he originally thought.
D) His date is even less attractive than he originally thought.

Question 70

Research suggests that people seem to commit the fundamental attribution error

A) only if they use the availability heuristic to make attributions.
B) only if they are unaware of the actor's feelings about the particular behavior.
C) even when they attempt to explain their own behavior.
D) even when they are aware of the situational constraints of the behavior.

Question 71

The base-rate fallacy reflects

A) a failure to use consensus information.
B) a failure to use consistency information.
C) the actor-observer effect.
D) an excessive reliance on situational attributions.

Question 72

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to attribute

A) one's own behavior to personal factors rather than to the situation.
B) one's own behavior to the situation rather than to personal factors.
C) another person's behavior to personal factors rather than to the situation.
D) another person's behavior to situational factors rather than to personal factors.

Question 73

The tendency to mentally undo events or to ask "What if…?" is called

A) base-rate fallacy.
B) attribution.
C) counterfactual thinking.
D) fundamental attribution error.

Question 74

Participants in one study rated fictional food additives that were more difficult to pronounce as more hazardous to health. These results demonstrate that

A) people tend to fear things that sound unfamiliar.
B) people prefer to eat things that they have heard of.
C) people underestimate their own fears and anxieties.
D) People are unlikely to eat something that they can't pronounce

Question 75

The "Quiz Show" study by Ross and colleagues found that in judging the general knowledge of the contestant and questioner,

A) observers fell victim to the fundamental attribution error, but the questioner and contestant did not.
B) participants did not fall victim to the fundamental attribution error because they knew that the quiz show roles were assigned at random.
C) observers and even contestants fell victim to the fundamental attribution error.
D) men were more likely to commit the fundamental attribution error than women.

Question 76

According to Medvec's research on counterfactual thinking among Olympic medalists, which of the following is true ?

A) Bronze and ilver medalists are equally likely to think "What if… I had won the Gold?"
B) Silver medalists are happier with their standing than Bronze medalists, because Silver medalists think about how they could have done worse and received the Bronze.
C) Silver medalists are less happy with their standing than Bronze medalists, because Silver medalists think about how they could have done better and won the Gold.
D) Bronze medalists are envious of Silver medalists.

Question 77

A politician asked her speechwriter to write a speech that supports the death penalty. The fundamental attribution error would be most clearly seen in this case if the speechwriter

A) changes her attitude to support the death penalty.
B) is perceived by others to support the death penalty.
C) comes to believe that most other people support the death penalty.
D) is perceived by others to have written the speech because of a request from her boss.

Question 78

Whenever Elaine goes to the casino, the noise from all the winning slot machines convinces her that she will be able to win enough money to pay off all her debts. Elaine is a victim of

A) counterfactual thinking.
B) the base-rate fallacy.
C) the confirmation bias.
D) the false-consensus effect.

Question 79

Vito finished first in the school spelling bee, Fabrizio finished second, and Luigi finished third. The first place winner gets a cash prize and the opportunity to compete at the regional spelling bee, but the others get nothing. Which of the following is most likely to occur?

A) Fabrizio will engage in more counterfactual thinking than Luigi.
B) Luigi will engage in more counterfactual thinking than Fabrizio.
C) Fabrizio and Luigi will engage in counterfactual thinking to about the same extent, but more so than Vito.
D) Fabrizio and Luigi will engage in counterfactual thinking to about the same extent, but less so than Vito.

Question 80

Stephon knows someone whose brother received a very lucrative contract to play professional basketball for the National Basketball Association (NBA). With this success story in mind, he ignores the statistics that indicate a very low probability that anyone will make it to the NBA and overestimates his own chances of making it. This scenario best illustrates

A) the covariation principle.
B) the base-rate fallacy.
C) non-correspondent inferences.
D) the actor-observer effect.