Deck 4: The Meanings of Difference

Question 1

A variable that interacts with another variable to change its effect is called a(n) ________.

A) criterion variable
B) moderator variable
C) confounding variable
D) independent variable

Answer 1

moderator variable

Question 2

When meta-analysis practitioners decide which studies to include, ________.

A) they rely on their own judgments
B) they statistically analyze the effect size before deciding to include a study
C) they include all studies
D) they use a simple review technique

Answer 2

they rely on their own judgments

Question 3

In the context of math performance, which of the following best illustrates stereotype threat?

A) Women stereotype their own math abilities.
B) The fear of confirming the stereotype that women are bad at math may negatively impact women's math performance.
C) Boys and men stereotype girls and women more than girls and women do.
D) None of these answers is correct.

Answer 3

The fear of confirming the stereotype that women are bad at math may negatively impact women's math performance.

Question 4

Identify a true statement about gendering cognition when measuring math ability and achievement.

A) Even today, girls' performances on math tests show little improvement despite being given better educational opportunities than boys.
B) Most of the time, girls outperform boys on math tests in high school.
C) Today, college-bound high school girls are just as likely as college-bound boys to take four years of math.
D) Most of the time, boys' performances on standardized math tests are better than girls' performances in the elementary school years.

Question 5

Which of the following situations does NOT indicate a sexist bias in classrooms?

A) Girls are praised for their appearances, while boys are praised for their performances.
B) Girls are exposed to more sexual harassment than boys.
C) Girls are not exposed to as many math-enriched experiences as boys.
D) Girls are more likely to be punished for wrong answers than are boys.

Question 6

When the effects of two or more variables are mixed and it becomes impossible to decide which variable is causing experimental effects, it leads to ________.

A) stereotyping
B) self-objectification
C) autonomy
D) confounding

Question 7

Which of the following statements is true of the differences tradition?

A) It is used to invalidate the claim that there are fundamental differences between women and men.
B) It stems from liberal feminism and is used to argue for equality of the sexes.
C) It proposes that women and men are more similar than different in most, but not all, psychological dimensions and abilities.
D) It is used to argue that society should give more recognition to the activities, traits, and values of women.

Question 8

Identify a true statement about meta-analysis.

A) It allows conclusions about the causes of gender differences.
B) It eliminates the possibility of an overlooked source of bias common to previous studies.
C) It allows researchers to estimate the size of a gender-related difference.
D) It wholly compensates for the biases in original studies and ensures objective interpretation.

Question 9

Parents of girls tend to attribute their daughters' success in math to

A) good luck.
B) her ability to follow directions carefully.
C) hard work.
D) her teacher's ability to teach.

Question 10

The range or spread of scores is defined as

A) the average difference.
B) the statistical significance.
C) variability.
D) a confounding variable.

Question 11

Meta-analysis is useful because it

A) compares studies without the difficulties involved in statistical analysis.
B) statistically analyzes the results of many studies.
C) is simpler to use than previous methods of analyzing aggregate data.
D) ensures objective analysis of the results of multiple studies.

Question 12

The logic of experimental design and hypothesis testing leads psychologists to put more weight on findings of

A) error.
B) difference.
C) similarity.
D) bias.

Question 13

If a researcher tested both men and women on reasoning ability such that the men had college degrees and the women were high school graduates, then the level of education would be a

A) difference variable.
B) statistically significant variable.
C) confounding variable.
D) moderator variable.

Question 14

In classrooms where gender interacts with race, ________ get the most attention and ________ get the least attention.

A) White boys; minority boys
B) White boys and minority boys; White girls
C) White boys; minority girls
D) White boys; White girls

Question 15

In feminist theory and political movements, the difference tradition stems from

A) radical feminism.
B) liberal feminism.
C) cultural feminism.
D) socialist feminism.

Question 16

A study on stereotype threat and math performance (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999) suggests that

A) the gender gap in math performance is at least partly due to stereotype-influenced beliefs and expectations.
B) women stereotype their own math abilities more than men.
C) when women are told nothing about gender differences, they tend to do as well.
D) women do better on math tests when they are tested in mixed-sex groups than when tested with only men.

Question 17

Why is meta-analysis an improvement over simple reviews of studies?

A) It simplifies the study of other variables that interact with gender.
B) It allows researchers to assess the magnitude and consistency of difference effects statistically.
C) It allows researchers to estimate the size of a gender-related difference.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 18

In feminist theory and political movements, the similarities tradition stems from

A) cultural feminism.
B) liberal feminism.
C) radical feminism.
D) socialist feminism.

Question 19

In general, the cognitive ability and skills of males and females can be described as

A) similar.
B) very similar in a few areas but quite dissimilar in others.
C) very dissimilar in most areas.
D) dissimilar.

Question 20

The frequency distribution in the image given above suggests that

A) men are more variable than women.
B) there is more overlap than difference between the sexes.
C) mean differences are more important than average differences.
D) the concept of statistical significance is meaningless.

Question 21

Which of the following statements is true of collectivist cultures?

A) Development of an independent self is encouraged.
B) Both women and men are allowed to feel and express emotion.
C) Each individual is seen as unique.
D) Females are assigned the task of compensating for the emotional deficits of males.

Question 22

In a cross-cultural study comparing display rules in Japan, Canada, and the United States, Sadfar et al. (2009) found that

A) Canadians were less emotionally expressive overall than the other groups.
B) women expressed the positive emotion of happiness more than men did in all three cultures.
C) women expressed powerful emotions more than men in all three cultures.
D) people in the United States were less emotionally expressive overall than the other groups.

Question 23

Compared with males, females usually receive

A) lower scores on the math portion of the SAT and better math grades in college.
B) lower scores on the math portion of the SAT and similar math grades in college.
C) higher scores on the math portion of the SAT and similar math grades in college.
D) lower scores on the math portion of the SAT and lower math grades in college.

Question 24

Every culture has certain rules that govern which emotions may be expressed, under what circumstances, and how, and these rules are called

A) sentiment rules.
B) display rules.
C) narcissist rules.
D) operational rules.

Question 25

The right to get angry and show it is one kind of

A) discrimination.
B) congruence.
C) social power.
D) oppression.

Question 26

The ability to recognize emotions expressed by others is termed

A) decoding ability.
B) the display rule.
C) the feeling rule.
D) relational theory.

Question 27

Which of the following statements is true of cultures that encourage the development of an independent self?

A) Individuals are required to maintain relationships by fitting in with others.
B) The task of each individual is to fulfill his or her potential and become an autonomous person.
C) Individuals are expected to prioritize group goals over individual goals.
D) Men and women are expected to stay in their proper place in relationships while building reciprocal relationships.

Question 28

Which of the following behaviors by men are often not labeled as emotionality?

A) threats
B) emotional displays
C) narcissistic behaviors
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 29

________ expressed the emotions of powerlessness (fear, sadness) as well as the positive emotion of happiness, more than ________ did.

A) Men; women
B) Women; men
C) Gay men; straight women
D) Gay men; lesbians

Question 30

The Japanese proverb "the nail that sticks up gets hammered down" means that

A) people should not stand out or be different from everyone else.
B) the Japanese do not like sloppy workmanship.
C) those people who stand up for what they believe in will get what they need in life.
D) you might get hit if you disagree with someone in Japan.

Question 31

According to Kenney-Benson et al. (2006), girls' high grades are linked to their ________.

A) physical attractiveness
B) drive for mastery
C) better-developed parietal lobes
D) willingness to indulge in disruptive behavior in class

Question 32

The three emotions that are thought to be characteristic of men are

A) anger, contempt, and pride.
B) amusement, interest, and jealousy.
C) disgust, embarrassment, and sadness.
D) guilt, shame, and happiness.

Question 33

Which of the following helps children learn what it means to experience an emotion, what others expect them to perceive, and how they are supposed to recognize emotions in others?

A) feeling rules
B) display rules
C) the differences tradition
D) the similarities tradition

Question 34

When the Virginia Military Institute and South Carolina's Citadel went to court to prove that women should not be permitted admission, they claimed that psychological research had proven women to be weaker, more emotional, and unable to compete with men. Feminist psychologists protested that

A) the witnesses had utilized research that was nearly a century old.
B) although differences were true, women should still be given a chance at the taxpayer-supported school.
C) witnesses had misrepresented and misused psychological research on gender differences.
D) women should operate at these schools using a "handicap," as golfers do.

Question 35

Our society relies on standardized tests (i.e., SAT, GRE) to predict college performance. Women score lower than men on these tests and get better grades in college. Women's educational achievement is misrepresented by the

A) decoding cue.
B) female underprediction effect.
C) SAT effect.
D) GRE effect.

Question 36

In the context of gendering cognition, which of the following statements is true of girls?

A) They are less likely than boys to make the honor roll.
B) They are less likely than boys to take honors and AP classes.
C) They are more likely than boys to repeat a grade.
D) They are more likely than boys to be elected to a class office.

Question 37

In the context of understanding the emotions expressed by others, ________.

A) tests show that women no longer have better skills than men
B) women are generally more skilled than men, which seems to reflect a biological sex difference
C) women are generally more skilled than men
D) both sexes have more difficulty reading men's nonverbal messages than women's

Question 38

Which of the following statements is suggested by the variability hypothesis?

A) Women are biologically more adaptable than men.
B) Men are statistically more likely than women to be geniuses.
C) Women are more likely than men to have mental health issues.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 39

Which of the following impacts mathematical ability and performance?

A) sex discrimination in testing
B) gender differences in math experience
C) confidence and self-expectation issues
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 40

Which of the following statements is true of two all-male military colleges in the 1990s?

A) They denied admission to women.
B) They required women to go through more rigorous training than the men.
C) They required women to pass more rigorous tests of neatness and respect than the men.
D) All of these answers are correct.

Question 41

It has been stated that women are better at decoding emotions than men are. What does it mean to say this is not merely a sex difference?

Question 42

Despite popular stereotypes, there is ________ in the emotionality of men and women.

A) a large gap
B) a moderate gap
C) much more overlap than difference
D) no difference

Question 43

Describe the three theories that have been used in the past to support the notion that females are cognitively inferior to males. Discuss the flaws in each theory.

Question 44

Explain why women's "emotionality" is rooted in a sociocultural context.

Question 45

What are some of the criticisms of standardized tests that are used as evidence of gender differences in math ability? Discuss the negative effects of SAT and other standardized tests on women.

Question 46

Explain how women's supposed "emotionality" is a strength rather than a weakness.

Question 47

According to researchers in the differences tradition, psychology and its theories have failed women by

A) focusing on the differences between men and women.
B) devaluing their strengths.
C) focusing too much on the similarities between men and women.
D) demonstrating how little autonomy most people really have.

Question 48

Describe the differences between cultures that value an independent self versus those that value an interdependent self.

Question 49

Imagine picking up tomorrow's morning newspaper and reading the following headline: "Reasoning Ability: New Research Shows Boys May Have Genetic Advantage." Explain how you would evaluate this claim.

Question 50

Some feminist psychologists believe that the study of gender-related differences is not a useful or important line of research. Discuss conceptual, methodological, and historical reasons for this belief. Are there, on the other hand, any good reasons to continue researching gender-related differences?

Question 51

Provide some explanations for why anger is a more acceptable emotion for men to display than almost any other. Include in your discussion the influences of social context and social power.

Question 52

What are display rules? Provide examples in your discussion.

Question 53

Briefly describe the process of meta-analysis and explain its advantages and disadvantages. Is meta-analysis a value-free methodology? Why or why not?

Question 54

The book says that "Gender is more than just sex." In what way is this true? Explain your answer.

Question 55

Summarize the research regarding gender-related differences in mathematical abilities. Do the findings support the notion that there are large differences between males and females?

Question 56

Men in the American culture are likely to learn that expressing ________ is an acceptable and effective way to control others.

A) envy
B) depression
C) anger
D) surprise

Question 57

What approaches have been suggested by feminist researchers as alternatives to document gender-related differences?