Deck 8: Thought and Language

Question 1

A group of interrelated concepts is a called a ____________.

A)category
B)superconcept
C)mental set
D)prototype

Answer 1

A

Question 2

Classical categorization involves typically involves the use of ______________,while categorization using prototypes involves _____________.

A)comparison; definitions
B)definitions; comparison
C)concepts; graded memberships
D)graded memberships; concepts

Answer 2

B

Question 3

Mandi shares her frozen dessert with her sister."Wow!" says her sister,"What type of ice-cream is this?" Mandi explains that,because it does not contain any dairy,the dessert is a sorbet and not an ice-cream.Mandi's use of the technical definition for ice-cream to classify the dessert is an example of:

A)using a prototype.
B)classical categorization.
C)using a heuristic.
D)linguistic relativity.

Answer 3

B

Question 4

Han and Bert both bought the same new cell phone.Han spent several weeks reviewing the dozens of different phones and reading reviews online,trying to find the best phone possible for his needs.Bert simply bought the first phone that met his needs.Given the research on maximizers and satisficers,which is most likely to be the outcome?

A)Han and Bert will end up equally satisfied about their purchases.
B)Han will be more satisfied with his purchase than Bert.
C)Bert will be more satisfied with his purchase than Han.
D)Han will spend less time researching his purchase next time.

Question 5

The concepts of dog,cat,and goldfish can be grouped together to form a _____________ called pets.

A)prototype
B)mental set
C)superconcept
D)category

Question 6

People often overestimate the danger of shark attacks because it is fairly easy to think of news stories and reports of shark attacks.This is an example of how the _____ can sometimes lead to poor judgments.

A)availability heuristic
B)anchoring effect
C)functional fixedness effect
D)representativeness heuristic

Question 7

One problem with the theory of classical categorization is that it does not allow for _____________.

A)formal definitions
B)concepts
C)graded membership
D)mental sets

Question 8

The use of specific rules to categorize objects is an example of:

A)using a prototype.
B)linguistic relativity.
C)using a heuristic.
D)classical categorization.

Question 9

The linguist relativity hypothesis suggests that:

A)the way we think about categories affects the language we use.
B)there are many different ways to describe the same category.
C)words are organized mentally based on their relationship to each other.
D)the language that we use affects how we think about the world.

Question 10

Seth tells his friend that he got two tickets to a big concert next week,to which his friend replies,"Get out of town!" Because of the context,Seth knows his friend is expressing excitement and doesn't really want him to leave town.This is an example of:

A)pragmatics.
B)linguistic relativity.
C)semantics.
D)syntax.

Question 11

For most people,a dog is a better fit than a tarantula for the category of pets.This is an example of ____________.

A)linguistic relativity
B)graded membership
C)priming
D)functional fixedness

Question 12

Concepts and categories are important because they allow us to:

A)classify objects or ideas as belonging to one single group and no others.
B)avoid using prototypes in most situations.
C)develop mental sets which help us solve new problems.
D)organize and manage tremendous amounts of information.

Question 13

The smallest units of language that convey meaning are known as:

A)semantics.
B)morphemes.
C)phonemes.
D)syntaxes.

Question 14

According to classical categorization,people use _____ to decide if an object belongs to a specific category.

A)prototypes
B)semantic networks
C)specific rules or features
D)categorization by comparison

Question 15

The "sensitive period" for language refers to:

A)a period of time in our ancestral past when language first evolved.
B)a period of time during gestation when the language areas of the brain develop.
C)a time during young adulthood when accents can be reformed.
D)a time during childhood when children are especially wired to learn language.

Question 16

Which example would most people take longest to identify as a fruit (even though it technically is a fruit)?

A)grape
B)apple
C)orange
D)olive

Question 17

Studies where researchers have attempted to teach language to non-human animals have generally found that:

A)chimpanzees and gorillas are the only animal species that can fully learn language.
B)some animals are capable of learning elements of human language,but they have not convincingly demonstrated human-like language use.
C)animals are incapable of learning even the most basic elements of human language.
D)dolphins are the only animal species that can fully learn language.

Question 18

A _____________ is the mental representation of an object,event,or idea.

A)mental set
B)concept
C)algorithm
D)prototype

Question 19

When Kwan's computer stopped working,he called the company's technical support line.The technician followed a predetermined set of steps from a manual to diagnose and help Kwan fix his computer over the phone.The steps that the technician followed are an example of what type of problem solving strategy?

A)algorithmic
B)anchoring
C)functional fixedness
D)heuristic

Question 20

Many people categorize tomatoes as a vegetable,even though they technically meet the scientific definition for a fruit.A likely reason for this is that:

A)they are using classical categorization.
B)tomatoes only belong in a category of their own.
C)tomatoes are closer to most people's prototype for a vegetable than their prototype for a fruit.
D)the tomato is a common prototype for fruit.

Question 21

Research indicates that people categorize concepts by using:

A)classical categorization,not prototypes.
B)prototypes,not classical categorization.
C)both classical categorization and prototypes.
D)neither classical categorization nor prototypes.

Question 22

Mental representations of an average category member are called _____________ and allow for "classification by resemblance."

A)mental sets
B)concepts
C)algorithms
D)prototypes

Question 23

Because semantic networks are arranged ________________,they show which categories are more basic than others.

A)algorithmically
B)in a hierarchy
C)phonetically
D)congruently

Question 24

Which of the following is most likely to be a basic level category?

A)animal
B)calico
C)cat
D)Siamese

Question 25

When tested in a laboratory study,Reese identified the statement,"Cows make milk" as true faster than she did the statement "Cows breathe air." What does this likely indicate about the relationship between categories in her semantic network?

A)Cows and breathing air are closer together than milk and breathing air.
B)Milk is a basic level category.
C)Cows and milk are closer together than cows and breathing air.
D)Animals that breathe is a basic level category.

Question 26

In a semantic network,the ____________ represent concepts,and the _______________ represent the structure of a category as well as the relationships among different categories.

A)nodes; links
B)links; nodes
C)graded memberships; prototypes
D)prototypes; graded memberships

Question 27

One way to understand the relationship between various categories and concepts is to draw a diagram of a(n)___________.

A)algorithm
B)mental set
C)semantic network
D)prototype

Question 28

On his way into work,Charlie sees a sign for an upcoming concert for the band Cake.Without even realizing it,the word cake has made Charlie think of baked sweets,which makes him think of getting a donut.This is an example of ______________.

A)categorization
B)priming
C)linguistic relativity
D)sentence verification

Question 29

The linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that:

A)one's language determines the pattern of one's thinking and view of the world.
B)one's thinking and view of the world determines the structure of one's language.
C)we decide which objects belong to a concept according to what is most probable or sensible,given the facts at hand.
D)perception of surface structure precedes deep structure in understanding a sentence.

Question 30

Which of the following is NOT true of basic level categories?

A)They are always the most general category in a semantic network.
B)They are the level at which most thinking occurs.
C)They are the level at which prototypes exist.
D)They are the terms used most often in conversation.

Question 31

Which of the following would be the best example of culture affecting categorization?

A)A five-year-old child calls a dolphin a "fish."
B)A Japanese man takes off his shoes before entering a house.
C)A woman from a traditional hunter-gather society categorizes plants as edible,inedible,or medicinal,instead of as flower,root,berry,etc.
D)A farmer sees a picture of a chicken sandwich in a magazine and decides to make himself one for lunch.

Question 32

According to your textbook,in which way do Americans and the Japanese tend to differ?

A)Americans tend to use basic level categories whereas the Japanese do not.
B)Americans tend to focus on a single characteristic,whereas Japanese people tend to view objects in relation to their environment.
C)Americans consider cows to be livestock whereas the Japanese do not.
D)Americans tend to use classical categorization,whereas the Japanese use prototypes.

Question 33

What do we call the hypothesis that language influences what we think?

A)the dynamic hypothesis
B)the language reaction hypothesis
C)the linguistic relativity hypothesis
D)the cognitive linguistic hypothesis

Question 34

Which of the following is true about priming effects?

A)Priming is an affective form of behavior control.
B)Priming effects only occur in laboratory research.
C)The chains of associations activated by a specific priming cue are the same for everyone.
D)Priming can occur without conscious awareness.

Question 35

In cognitive psychology,a__________________ is an interconnected set of nodes (or concepts)and the links that join them to form a category.

A)semantic network
B)mental set
C)algorithm
D)prototype

Question 36

If someone walked up to you and said,"Milk," and then asked you to quickly name an animal,you would likely say,"cow." This illustrates the concept of ______________.

A)priming
B)categorization
C)sentence verification
D)linguistic relativity

Question 37

Most people take longer to identify a platypus as a mammal than it takes them to identify a cat as a mammal.This is likely because a cat is closer to most people's _______________ for the concept of mammal.

A)mental set
B)prototype
C)basic concept
D)algorithm

Question 38

According to a study discussed in your textbook,participants performing a lexical decision task were able to identify strings of letters such as "nutcracker" and "reindeer" as being real words faster in December than other times of the year.This indicates that the holiday season creates a ____________ effect for related certain words.

A)sentence verification
B)linguistic relativity
C)priming
D)categorization

Question 39

Which of the following is most likely to be a basic level category?

A)1967 Ford Mustang
B)vehicle
C)convertible
D)car

Question 40

Consistent with the linguistic relativity hypothesis,which of the following would most likely be true?

A)People from New England and England think very differently.
B)People from New Mexico and New England think very differently.
C)People from China and New England think very differently.
D)People from China and New England think very similarly.

Question 41

In the nine-dot problem discussed in your textbook,the rules do not specify that the lines cannot extend beyond the dots,however most people try to find a solution that follows this non-existent rule anyway.This is an example of:

A)the anchoring effect.
B)belief perseverance
C)a goal state
D)a self-imposed cognitive obstacle.

Question 42

A formula is an example of a(n)______________.

A)logarithm
B)algorithm
C)response set
D)heuristic

Question 43

Which of the following is a common problem with ill-defined problems?

A)They cannot be solved by algorithmic approaches.
B)They cannot be solved by using operators.
C)It can be difficult to know when the solution has been reached.
D)They cannot be solved by heuristic approaches.

Question 44

In problem solving,the techniques we use to reach a solution are called _____________.

A)initial states
B)obstacles
C)operators
D)goal states

Question 45

______________ are problem-solving strategies based on a series of rules,while ______________are strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to what is the most likely solution are called.

A)Algorithms; heuristics
B)Heuristics; algorithms
C)Ill-defined operators; well-defined operators
D)Well-defined operators; Ill-defined operators

Question 46

Kyle buys a new refrigerator,but when he gets home,he cannot fit it through the front door of his house.Which of the following would describe an operator for Kyle's problem?

A)The refrigerator is outside of the house.
B)The refrigerator is inside the house.
C)Kyle can make the refrigerator narrower by taking the doors off of it.
D)The refrigerator does not fit through the front door.

Question 47

Which of the following is a characteristic of well-defined problems?

A)The conditions is at the outset of a problem are often unclear.
B)There is typically a clear goal.
C)The problem typically has personal relevance.
D)It can be difficult to know when the problem is solved.

Question 48

Research on Inuit Eskimos has revealed that:

A)although the Inuit have different words for types of snow then are found in English,they appear to think about snow in the same way Americans and other non-Inuit do.
B)the Inuit have hundreds of different words for snow.
C)the specific language the Inuit use affects the way they think about snow.
D)learning to speak English changes the way Inuits think about snow.

Question 49

Initial state,goal state,and obstacles are the three main features of ___________.

A)semantic networks
B)language
C)categorization
D)problems

Question 50

Computers are particularly suited for using ________________ to solve problems.

A)functional fixedness
B)heuristics
C)prototypes
D)algorithms

Question 51

Talia is looking for her cat by methodically searching each room and then closing the door.She is using what type of problem solving strategy?

A)an algorithm
B)a heuristic
C)anchoring
D)a hunch

Question 52

Kyle buys a new refrigerator,but when he gets home,he cannot fit it through the front door of his house.Which of the following would describe the initial state for Kyle's problem?

A)The refrigerator is outside of the house.
B)The refrigerator is inside the house.
C)Kyle can make the refrigerator narrower by taking the doors off of it.
D)The refrigerator does not fit through the front door.

Question 53

While many of his friends dislike math,Ricky enjoys solving math problems.When asked why,Ricky explains that,unlike many real-life problems,with math problems all of the information you need to solve the problem is given to you,and you know when you have reached the solution.Using the terminology of problem solving,why does Ricky like math problems?

A)They form a clear mental set.
B)They are well-defined problems.
C)They are ill-defined problems.
D)They can be solved by using heuristics.

Question 54

Which of the following is the best example of a well-defined problem?

A)Larry is unhappy with his life.
B)Cassandra needs to think of a good subject for a painting.
C)Jennifer wants to quit smoking.
D)Oscar needs to choose a major for college.

Question 55

Which of the following is true regarding cognitive obstacles?

A)Cognitive obstacles are often self-imposed.
B)Cognitive obstacles can be overcome by using a mental set.
C)Cognitive obstacles are always caused by the parameters of the problem itself.
D)Cognitive obstacles can be overcome by using functional fixedness.

Question 56

Compared to a heuristic,an algorithm is more likely to:

A)involve specific rules.
B)require following a step-by-step procedure.
C)give you a precise answer to a problem.
D)involve intuition about how to solve a problem.

Question 57

Kendra has been a professional chef for 20 years.Instead of following recipes step-by-step,she uses her experience to guide her cooking,adding a pinch of salt here,or a little extra oil there.Kendra's approach to cooking is an example of:

A)functional fixedness.
B)a heuristic.
C)a mental set.
D)an algorithm.

Question 58

Which of the following is a heuristic approach to determining how many brownies to make for a party?

A)Make the same number as you did for your last party because you recall that number being about right.
B)Multiply the number of people invited by the number of brownies you want each person to have.
C)Determine the number of brownies in each batch and then determine which multiple of that number is closest the estimated number of brownies needed.
D)Estimate the number of brownies each invitee will eat and then sum the estimates.

Question 59

For cognitive psychologists,problem solving generally refers to:

A)the process of finding solutions to only well-defined problems,but not ill-defined problems.
B)finding ways to cope with life stressors.
C)accomplishing a goal when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear.
D)the use of formal,rules-based strategies to find precise solutions.

Question 60

Kyle buys a new refrigerator,but when he gets home,he cannot fit it through the front door of his house.Which of the following would describe the obstacle for Kyle's problem?

A)The refrigerator is outside of the house.
B)The refrigerator is inside the house.
C)Kyle can make the refrigerator narrower by taking the doors off of it.
D)The refrigerator does not fit through the front door.

Question 61

Riley has figured out how to unlock his bedroom door with a paper clip.What has he most likely overcome in his new use of the paper clip?

A)functional fixedness
B)the representational problem
C)the representative heuristic
D)the confirmation bias

Question 62

When people make the conjunction fallacy,it is most likely because:

A)they are using an algorithmic approach.
B)their judgment is being affected by an anchor.
C)they are using the representativeness heuristic.
D)they are just guessing randomly.

Question 63

When someone does not see that a tool can be used for something other than its intended purpose,then ________________ can be said to have occurred.

A)the anchoring effect
B)confirmation bias
C)functional fixedness
D)the representative heuristic

Question 64

The television character MacGyver was famous for using everyday objects to get out of trouble.In one episode,for example,MacGyver used the aluminum foil wrapper from a stick of gum to replace a blown electrical fuse.The MacGyver character clearly did NOT suffer from what cognitive obstacle to problem solving?

A)the anchoring effect
B)confirmation bias
C)functional fixedness
D)the representative heuristic

Question 65

When using the availability heuristic,people tend to judge the probability of an event based on:

A)the need to be right,which makes it hard to listen to the available information with an open mind.
B)statistical consideration of the frequency with which the event occurs in everyday life.
C)the burden of doubt people feel about their abilities to determine probability from available information.
D)how easy it is to think of examples or instances.

Question 66

The _______________ occurs when an individual believes the probability of finding a specific member in two overlapping categories is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger,general categories.

A)anchoring effect
B)representativeness error
C)confirmation bias
D)conjunction fallacy

Question 67

Nate thinks that Republicans and Democrats almost never work together in Congress.The reason he believes this is that he finds it much easier to think of examples of politicians from the two parties not working together than to think of examples them working together.It is likely that the ______________ has caused Nate to underestimate how frequently Democrats and Republicans work together.

A)availability heuristic
B)confirmation bias
C)representativeness heuristic
D)anchoring effect

Question 68

A(n)____________ is a number an individual uses when attempting to solve a problem using numbers,to keep his or her response within a limited range.

A)anchor
B)initial state
C)representativeness value
D)operator

Question 69

Which decision-making strategy involves making judgments of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category?

A)an algorithm
B)goal-state analysis
C)the representativeness heuristic
D)the availability heuristic

Question 70

Deep Check
In a research study,participants are told that Louis has lived in Boston his whole life.They are then asked which is more likely:
A)Louis is a baseball fan,or

A)Participants who answer 'A' are correct.
B)Louis is a baseball fan who roots for the Boston Red Sox.Which of the following is true?
B)Participants who answer 'A' have committed the conjunction fallacy.
C)Participants who answer 'B' are demonstrating belief perseverance.

Question 71

When people attempt to solve a problem involving numbers they may find themselves using another number called ____________ to keep their response within a limited range.

A)an anchor
B)an initial state
C)a representativeness value
D)an operator

Question 72

When Howie's old girlfriend used to get upset with him,he could smooth things over by buying flowers or chocolates for her.He keeps trying this strategy with his current girlfriend,but she gets angry with him each time.It appears that Howie has developed _______________which is interfering with the development of a new relationship strategy.

A)a mental set
B)an anchoring effect
C)a prototype
D)a goal state

Question 73

Which of the following is true about the use of the representativeness heuristic to make judgments?

A)Use of the representativeness heuristic almost always leads to incorrect judgments.
B)Use of the representativeness heuristic almost always leads to correct judgments.
C)In many cases the representativeness heuristic leads to correct judgments,but it can also lead to biased judgments in other situations.
D)The representativeness heuristic is used for solving well-defined problems,but is not relevant for making judgments.

Question 74

The tendency to solve problems using procedures or strategies that worked in the past on similar problems is called:

A)the availability heuristic.
B)the anchoring effect.
C)a mental set.
D)the representativeness heuristic.

Question 75

Suppose 40% of all of the books in a library are fiction and 2% of all of the books are on the Roman Empire.Wanda is a big fan of historical fiction novels.Which of the following is she LEAST likely to leave the library with?

A)a fiction book
B)a book which involves the Roman Empire
C)a fictional book that takes place in the Roman Empire
D)the answer cannot be determined from the information given

Question 76

Because of the availability heuristic,Jayne and her husband are most likely to exaggerate the risk to their children of ____________.

A)depression
B)delinquency
C)being kidnapped
D)asthma

Question 77

A loose screw on the visor causes it to drop down while Ben drives; however,he keeps forgetting to take a screwdriver out to the car to fix it.When he notices the visor drop again,he reaches into his pocket for a dime he then uses to tighten the screw holding the visor.What problem-solving difficulty did Ben overcome?

A)relative comparison
B)functional fixedness
C)poor problem representation
D)the representative heuristic

Question 78

Seventy percent of the students in a classroom are women and 30 percent are men.One student is described as ambitious,athletic,and assertive.Why are most people likely to think this description refers to a male student?

A)The anchoring effect can lead to gender bias.
B)They are using the representativeness heuristic.
C)People seek only confirming information.
D)People tend to make relative comparisons.

Question 79

Frank mistakenly believes that there are more words that begin with the letter "k" than there are with the letter "k" in the third position due to __________________.

A)the representativeness heuristic
B)the availability heuristic
C)anchoring effect
D)confirmation bias

Question 80

Johannes has been a car mechanic for many years and is very good at diagnosing problems with cars.However,when an electric car comes into the garage,his approach to diagnosing the problem is unsuccessful.Johannes failure is likely the result of:

A)an operator.
B)a prototype.
C)an anchoring effect.
D)a mental set.