Deck 8: Aggregate Planning in a Supply Chain

Question 1

Safety inventory is defined as inventory held to satisfy demand that is higher than forecasted.

Answer 1

FALSE

Question 2

Safety capacity is defined as capacity used to satisfy demand that is lower than forecasted.

Answer 2

FALSE

Question 3

A planning horizon is usually between three and five years.

Answer 3

FALSE

Question 4

Traditionally, much of aggregate planning is focused within an enterprise and may not always be seen as a part of supply chain management.

Question 5

The goal of aggregate planning is to build a plan that satisfies demand while minimizing downtime.

Question 6

A poor aggregate plan may result in a large amount of excess inventory and capacity, thereby raising costs.

Question 7

Aggregate planning is a process by which a company determines levels of capacity, production, subcontracting, inventory, stockouts, and even pricing over a specified time horizon.

Question 8

The goal of aggregate planning is to satisfy demand in a way that minimizes profit.

Question 9

Forecasting errors are dealt with in aggregate plans using either safety backlog or safety capacity.

Question 10

As capacity utilization increases, it becomes less important to perform aggregate planning.

Question 11

As inputs into the aggregate plan change, managers do not need to make changes to the aggregate plan.

Question 12

To improve the quality of aggregate plans, forecast errors must be taken into account when formulating aggregate plans.

Question 13

Short-term production serves as a broad blueprint for operations and establishes the parameters within which aggregate planning decisions are made.

Question 14

Linear programming finds the solution that creates the highest profit while satisfying the constraints that a company faces.

Question 15

Most strategies that an aggregate planner actually uses are in combination, and are referred to as hybrid strategies.

Question 16

The aggregate planner must make a trade-off between capacity, inventory, and backlog costs.

Question 17

To create an aggregate plan, a company must specify the planning horizon for the plan and the duration of each period within the planning horizon.

Question 18

The aggregate planning problem is concerned with determining the production level, inventory level, and capacity level (internal and outsourced) for each period that maximizes the firm's profit over the planning horizon.

Question 19

Given that forecasts are always wrong to some degree, the aggregate plan needs to have some flexibility built into it if it is to be useful.

Question 20

Companies should work with downstream partners to produce forecasts and with upstream partners to determine constraints when doing aggregate planning.

Question 21

The fundamental trade-offs available to an aggregate planner are between

A) capability, inventory, and backlog costs.
B) capability, inventory, and sales costs.
C) capacity, inventory, and backlog costs.
D) capacity, inventory, and sales costs.

Question 22

The strategy where workforce (capacity) is kept stable but the number of hours worked is varied over time in an effort to synchronize production with demand is the

A) flexibility strategy.
B) chase strategy.
C) level strategy.
D) mixed strategy.

Question 23

Aggregate planning solves problems involving

A) aggregate decisions and stock keeping unit (SKU) level decisions.
B) aggregate decisions or stock keeping unit (SKU) level decisions.
C) aggregate decisions rather than stock keeping unit (SKU) level decisions.
D) stock keeping unit (SKU) level decisions rather than aggregate decisions.

Question 24

The strategy where the production rate is synchronized with the demand rate by varying machine capacity or hiring and laying off employees as the demand rate varies is the

A) adjustable strategy.
B) chase strategy.
C) level strategy.
D) mixed strategy.

Question 25

The operational parameter concerned with the number of workers/units of capacity needed for production is

A) production rate.
B) workforce.
C) overtime.
D) backlog.

Question 26

The goal of aggregate planning is to

A) dissatisfy customers in a way that maximizes profit.
B) dissatisfy customers in a way that minimizes profit.
C) satisfy demand in a way that maximizes profit.
D) satisfy demand in a way that minimizes profit.

Question 27

The planning horizon is

A) the time period over which the aggregate plan is to produce a solution.
B) the duration of each time period in the aggregate plan.
C) the length of time required to produce the aggregate plan.
D) the solution to the aggregate plan.

Question 28

An aggregate planner requires information on constraints. Which of the following is one of the typical constraints for an aggregate planner?

A) Inventory holding cost
B) Labor/machine hours required per unit
C) Stockout or backlog cost
D) Limits on overtime

Question 29

The strategy where a stable machine capacity and workforce are maintained with a constant output rate, with inventory levels fluctuating over time, is the

A) adjustable strategy.
B) chase strategy.
C) level strategy.
D) mixed strategy.

Question 30

________ is used to determine customer service levels.

A) Inventory held
B) Backlog/stockout quantity
C) Workforce hired/laid off
D) Machine capacity increase/decrease

Question 31

A poor aggregate plan can result in

A) appropriate inventory levels.
B) efficient use of capacity.
C) better sales and lost profits.
D) lost sales and lost profits.

Question 32

The operational parameter concerned with the number of units completed per unit time (such as per week or per month) is

A) production rate.
B) workforce.
C) overtime.
D) backlog.

Question 33

Demand is forecast for the next five months as 200, 300, 500, 300, 200. The production planner decides to adopt a level strategy, so over the next five months they should produce

A) 200, 300, 500, 300, 200.
B) 500, 400, 300, 200, 100.
C) 100, 200, 300, 400, 500.
D) 300, 300, 300, 300, 300.

Question 34

The process by which a company determines levels of capacity, production, subcontracting, inventory, stockouts, and even pricing over a specified time horizon is

A) aggregate planning.
B) detail planning.
C) inventory planning.
D) sales planning.

Question 35

The operational parameter concerned with the planned inventory carried over the various periods in the planning horizon is

A) production rate.
B) overtime.
C) backlog.
D) inventory on hand.

Question 36

Aggregate planning, to be effective, requires inputs from

A) all customers.
B) all departments.
C) all suppliers.
D) throughout the supply chain.

Question 37

Aggregate planning is concerned with determining

A) the production level, sales level, and capacity for each period.
B) the demand level, inventory level, and capacity for each period.
C) the production level, inventory level, and capacity for each period.
D) the production level, staffing level, and capacity for each period.

Question 38

Aggregate planning should consider information from

A) only the enterprise as its breadth of scope.
B) downstream partners to produce forecasts.
C) upstream partners to determine constraints.
D) all of the above

Question 39

Much of aggregate planning has traditionally been focused

A) on short-term production scheduling.
B) on customer relationship management.
C) within an enterprise.
D) beyond enterprise boundaries.

Question 40

The length of the planning horizon is usually between

A) one and three months.
B) three and eighteen months.
C) one and three years.
D) three and five years.

Question 41

Scenario 8.2 - Willow
A company faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $8 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $15, the cost of subcontracting is $12 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $6.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 400 & 800 & 1200 & 700 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Qvertime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 400 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 20 units per day produced using two shifts and the plant runs seven days a week. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-What is the optimal total cost of the aggregate plan developed to address Scenario 8.2?

A) $27,200
B) $20,960
C) $31,400
D) $26,600

Question 42

Forecasting errors are dealt with using

A) safety backlog.
B) safety capacity.
C) safety inventory.
D) B and C only

Question 43

Inventory held to satisfy demand that is higher than forecasted is

A) safety backlog.
B) safety capacity.
C) safety inventory.
D) safety sales.

Question 44

Most strategies that an aggregate planner actually uses are in combination and are referred to as the

A) adjustable strategy.
B) chase strategy.
C) level strategy.
D) mixed strategy.

Question 45

Scenario 8.2 - Willow
A company faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $8 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $15, the cost of subcontracting is $12 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $6.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 400 & 800 & 1200 & 700 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Qvertime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 400 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 20 units per day produced using two shifts and the plant runs seven days a week. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-How many months does the regular time output exceed plant capacity in the optimal solution to Scenario 8.2?

A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) 3

Question 46

What is the name of the plan that breaks apart the aggregate plan into distinct product families?

A) Master production schedule
B) Rough cut capacity plan
C) SKU aggregate plan
D) Process plan

Question 47

Scenario 8.1-Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 500 & 750 & 1200 & 650 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Overtime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-Use the information from Scenario 8.1 to determine the objective function for this scenario.

A) $\text { Max Output } = \sum \text { Regular } + \sum \text { Overtime } + \sum \text { Subcontracting }$
B) Max Profit $= \sum$ Revenue $- \$ 5 \sum$ Regular $- \$ 7.5 \sum$ Overtime $- \$ 9 \sum$ Subcontracting $\$ 2 \sum$ Ending Inventory
C) $\text { Min Cost } = \$ 5 \sum \text { Regular } + \$ 7.5 \sum \text { Overtime } + \$ 9 \sum \text { Subcontracting } + \$ 2 \sum \text { Ending Inventory }$
D) $\text { Min Output } = \sum \text { Overtime } + \sum \text { Subcontracting }$

Question 48

Scenario 8.1-Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 500 & 750 & 1200 & 650 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Overtime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-Use the information from Scenario 8.1 to determine the number of constraints in this scenario.

A) 12
B) 15
C) 20
D) 24

Question 49

Scenario 8.1-Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 500 & 750 & 1200 & 650 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Overtime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-What is the optimal total cost of the aggregate plan developed to address Scenario 8.1?

A) $16,700
B) $18,950
C) $18,450
D) $16,250

Question 50

When formulating aggregate plans,

A) forecast errors have no impact.
B) forecast errors must be taken into account.
C) forecast accuracy is assumed.
D) forecast accuracy is not a factor.

Question 51

Scenario 8.2 - Willow
A company faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $8 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $15, the cost of subcontracting is $12 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $6.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 400 & 800 & 1200 & 700 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Qvertime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 400 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 20 units per day produced using two shifts and the plant runs seven days a week. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-How many units are produced using overtime in the optimal aggregate plan developed to address Scenario 8.2?

A) 360
B) 200
C) 400
D) 280

Question 52

Capacity used to satisfy demand that is higher than forecasted is

A) safety backlog.
B) safety capacity.
C) safety inventory.
D) safety sales.

Question 53

A highly effective tool for a company to use when it tries to maximize profits while being subjected to a series of constraints is

A) aggregate programming.
B) distribution programming.
C) production programming.
D) linear programming.

Question 54

Demand is forecast for the next five months as 200, 300, 500, 300, 200. The production planner decides to adopt a chase strategy, so over the next five months they should produce

A) 200, 300, 500, 300, 200.
B) 500, 400, 300, 200, 100.
C) 100, 200, 300, 400, 500.
D) 300, 300, 300, 300, 300.

Question 55

Scenario 8.2 - Willow
A company faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $8 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $15, the cost of subcontracting is $12 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $6.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 400 & 800 & 1200 & 700 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Qvertime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 400 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 20 units per day produced using two shifts and the plant runs seven days a week. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-Without actually solving the aggregate planning problem, it is safe to conclude that in the optimal solution to Scenario 8.2.

A) the total ending inventory will exceed the number of units made using overtime.
B) the number of units made using subcontracting will exceed the number of units made using overtime.
C) the number of units made using regular time will exceed the forecast.
D) the number of units made using subcontracting will exceed the number of units made using regular time.

Question 56

Which of the following is an approach a company can use to create a buffer for forecast error using safety inventory?

A) Overtime
B) Carry extra workforce permanently
C) Build and carry extra inventories
D) Subcontracting

Question 57

Scenario 8.2 - Willow
A company faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $8 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $15, the cost of subcontracting is $12 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $6.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 400 & 800 & 1200 & 700 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Qvertime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 400 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 20 units per day produced using two shifts and the plant runs seven days a week. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-How many units are produced using overtime in the optimal aggregate plan developed to address Scenario 8.2?

A) 360
B) 200
C) 400
D) 280

Question 58

Scenario 8.1-Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 500 & 750 & 1200 & 650 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Overtime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-Use the information from Scenario 8.1 to determine the number of decision variables in this scenario.

A) 10
B) 15
C) 20
D) 24

Question 59

Scenario 8.1-Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 500 & 750 & 1200 & 650 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Overtime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-Which of these is a constraint that is appropriate for Scenario 8.1?

A) $\sum \text { Output } \geq 680$
B) $\sum \text { Ending Inventory } \leq 0$
C) $\sum \text { Subcontracting } + \sum \text { Overtime } \leq 300$
D) $\sum \text { Subcontracting } \leq 300$

Question 60

Scenario 8.1-Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.
$\begin{array}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline & \text { January } & \text { February } & \text { March } & \text { April } & \text { May } \\\hline \text { Forecast } & 500 & 750 & 1200 & 650 & 300 \\\hline \text { Beginning Inventory } & 100 & & & & \\\hline \text { Regular Time } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Overtime } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Subcontracting } & & & & & \\\hline \text { Ending Inventory } & & & & & \\\hline\end{array}$
The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.

-Which of these statements about Scenario 8.1 is evident without even developing an aggregate plan?

A) Some overtime will be needed.
B) Ending inventory must be negative.
C) Overtime must exceed subcontracting.
D) Subcontracting must exceed regular time output.

Question 61

How frequently should the aggregate plan be rerun?

A) Weekly
B) Monthly
C) Every 3 to 8 months
D) As inputs to the aggregate plan change

Question 62

Scenario 8.1 - Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.

The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.
Formulate the aggregate plan using linear programming.

Question 63

What information does a master production schedule provide that an aggregate plan does not?

A) Expense information for the planning period
B) Revenue information for the planning period
C) Specific product family production information
D) A specific machine schedule for each order

Question 64

Discuss key issues to be considered when implementing aggregate planning.

Question 65

The aggregate plan needs to

A) be a final product because changes are disruptive to the supply chain.
B) be considered fixed because forecasts are usually accurate.
C) have some flexibility built into it because forecasts are always wrong.
D) have some flexibility built into it because forecasts are usually right.

Question 66

As capacity utilization increases,

A) it becomes less important to perform aggregate planning.
B) it becomes more important to perform aggregate planning.
C) it does not affect the importance of performing aggregate planning.
D) it lessens the importance of aggregate planning.

Question 67

Explain the basic strategies that an aggregate planner has available to balance the various costs and meet demand.

Question 68

Advanced planning systems for aggregate planning rely heavily on ________ to deliver their full potential.

A) forecasting
B) the supply chain
C) constraints
D) data accuracy

Question 69

The earliest IT supply chain products were

A) aggregate planning modules.
B) cloud-based.
C) SaaS (software as a service).
D) enterprise resource planning modules.

Question 70

Scenario 8.1 - Gang Aft Agley
Gang Aft Agley, a manufacturing company, faces the aggregate planning problem shown in the table below. Cost of regular production is $5 per unit, the cost of producing the same unit on overtime is $7.50, the cost of subcontracting is $9 per unit, and the cost of carrying a unit in inventory from one month to the next is $2.

The labor contract at the plant prohibits both overtime and subcontracting output to exceed 300 units in any five month window. The plant capacity is 600 units per month produced using two shifts, regardless of the number of days in a month. By policy, management wants to avoid stockouts.
Formulate the aggregate plan using linear programming and solve it using Solver.

Question 71

Discuss the primary objective and operational parameters of aggregate planning.

Question 72

The quality of the aggregate plan can be improved by using information from

A) only the local firm.
B) only downstream partners.
C) only upstream partners.
D) all parts of the supply chain.

Question 73

The aggregate plan should be communicated to

A) only the local firm.
B) only downstream partners.
C) only upstream partners.
D) all supply chain partners who will be affected by it.

Question 74

Which of these software vendors offer advanced planning systems?

A) SAP
B) Solver
C) Excel
D) Google

Question 75

Discuss the information required for aggregate planning.

Question 76

The quality of the forecast can be improved by using information from

A) the focal firm.
B) downstream partners.
C) upstream partners.
D) competing supply chains.