Deck 9: Concepts and Generic Knowledge

Question 1

The claim that mental categories have graded membership is the claim that:

A) one cannot specify precisely whether a test case is in the category
B) some category members are better suited than others as category members
C) a participant's belief about a category's membership shifts as the participant learns more about the category
D) many category members approach the ideal for that category

Answer 1

B

Question 2

The claim that mental categories have fuzzy boundaries means that:

A) researchers have been unable to specify the boundaries for the categories people use every day
B) different individuals have somewhat different concepts, making it easy for people to disagree about how a particular object should be categorized
C) the boundaries for a general category are less clear-cut than are the boundaries for a basic-level category
D) category membership is a matter of degree, not an all-or-nothing distinction

Answer 2

D

Question 3

According to exemplar theory, typicality effects:

A) are difficult to explain
B) reflect the fact that typical category members are probably frequent in our environment and are therefore frequently represented in memory
C) are produced by the fact that the exemplars in memory for each category tend to resemble each other
D) should be observed with categories having homogeneous membership but not with more variable categories

Answer 3

B

Question 4

According to exemplar-based theories of mental categories, participants identify an object by comparing it to a:

A) prototype
B) single remembered instance of the category
C) definition
D) mental image

Question 5

The term "basic-level category" refers to the:

A) level of categorization regarded by most participants as indisputable
B) most general level of categorization participants can think of
C) most specific level of categorization participants can think of
D) most natural level of categorization, neither too specific nor too general

Question 6

Participants are asked to make up sentences about the category "birds." Which of the following is LEAST likely to be true about this task?

A) Among other tasks, this task provides evidence for the use of prototypes in categories.
B) Participants often have a wide range of birds in mind when generating these sentences.
C) Future participants will judge modified sentences where the name of a nonprototypical bird is substituted for the word "bird" as ridiculous.
D) The sensibility of a sentence is usually unchanged if the name of a prototypical bird is substituted for the word "bird."

Question 7

There is a pattern of converging evidence with respect to prototype theory. This means that:

A) different individuals agree in their identification of typical category members
B) the same category members turn out to be privileged in a wide range of experimental tasks
C) more recent studies have allowed a more precise specification of which category members are typical
D) as children grow up, they gain a more specific notion of what it is that identifies each category

Question 8

A researcher makes up a new category: "Personal items that you probably wouldn't take with you on a vacation." Categories such as these:

A) rarely show the graded-membership pattern
B) are likely to have clearer category boundaries than more familiar categories
C) are likely to show a graded-membership pattern
D) are difficult for participants to use in judgment tasks

Question 9

Participants are asked which birds they think are "particularly birdy" and which birds are "not very birdy." We should expect that the birds judged as "birdiest" are birds:

A) rarely mentioned in a production task
B) that are infrequent in the participants' environment
C) identified quickly in a picture-identification task
D) not likely to be identified as typical

Question 10

It seems unlikely that our conceptual knowledge is represented by mental definitions because:

A) each person has his or her own idea about how concepts should be defined
B) many of our abstract concepts (justice, love, and God) are difficult to define
C) it is easy to find exceptions to any definition proposed
D) most of our concepts are difficult to express in words

Question 11

Categorization models based on family resemblance rely on:

A) the definition of each category
B) feature overlap among the members of a category
C) the necessary conditions for membership in a category
D) the sufficient conditions for membership in a category

Question 12

In Trial 18 of a sentence-verification task, participants see the sentence "A robin is a bird." In Trial 42 they see "A penguin is a bird." According to prototype theory, we should expect:

A) faster responses to "robin" because participants more readily see the resemblance between "robin" and the bird prototype
B) faster responses to "penguin" because penguins are a unique bird, thus easily identified
C) faster responses to "robin" because of response priming
D) faster responses to "penguin" because penguins are higher in typicality

Question 13

An important difference between categorization via exemplars and categorization via prototypes is that according to exemplar theory:

A) the standard used in a particular category can vary from one occasion to the next
B) one categorizes objects by comparing them to a mentally represented standard
C) categorization depends on a judgment of resemblance
D) categories are represented in the mind by a relatively concrete illustration of the category

Question 14

In many procedures, participants are sensitive to a category's degree of variability. This is probably because the participants are able to refer to:

A) some mental representation of the average for that category
B) a comparison between the category and its mental prototype
C) a number of examples of the category's members, allowing them to estimate the range of what's possible within the category
D) an estimate of the variability based on one exemplar

Question 15

When we say, "There is a family resemblance among all the members of the Martinez family," we mean that:

A) there is at least one feature shared by all the members of the family
B) there is at least one identifying trait such that if you have that trait, you are certain to be a member of the family
C) any pair of family members will have certain traits in common even though there may be no traits shared by all of the family members
D) there are several features that all members of the family have in common

Question 16

Judgments about which category members are typical:

A) are easily shifted by changes in context or changes in perspective
B) shift as one learns more about the category but then become quite stable
C) differ sharply across cultures
D) are impressively constant across individuals and situations

Question 17

In making category judgments, we are often sensitive to the degree of variability within the target category. This fact is easily explained by:

A) exemplar-based theories but not by prototype theory
B) prototype theory but not by exemplar-based theories
C) neither prototype theory nor exemplar-based theories
D) both prototype theory and exemplar-based theories

Question 18

If asked to name as many birds as they can, participants are MOST likely to name:

A) larger birds (e.g., hawk, owl)
B) distinctive birds (e.g., vulture, penguin)
C) birds associated with other familiar concepts (e.g., turkey, bald eagle)
D) birds resembling the prototype (e.g., robin, sparrow)

Question 19

Basic-level categories have all of the following traits EXCEPT:

A) if asked simply to describe an object, participants are likely to use the basic-level term
B) basic-level categories are usually represented in the language by a single word
C) basic-level descriptions are more difficult to remember than more general descriptions
D) basic-level terms are acquired by children at a younger age than either more specific or more general terms

Question 20

According to prototype theory, the mental representation for each concept:

A) represents an average or ideal for the category's members
B) specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions for category membership
C) is located on the boundary of the category
D) lists the perceptual features that are found only in that category

Question 21

It has been suggested that a rigid definition for a category is not possible, and that resemblance (much like a family resemblance) might be more appropriate. Why?

A) Categorization is a matter of degree, not all-or-none.
B) Categories are constantly adding new members.
C) Similarity is often subjective.
D) A rigid definition is unlikely to be accepted by everyone.

Question 22

Researchers have claimed that as one gains more and more experience with a category, the mental representation for that category is likely to shift from:

A) a prototype to exemplar-based knowledge
B) exemplar-based knowledge to a definition
C) a definition to a prototype
D) exemplar-based knowledge to a prototype

Question 23

It is possible for a test case to be thought of as typical of a category, despite not being a member of that category. Which of the following examples is consistent with
This idea?

A) Whales are more typical of fish than sea lampreys.
B) A squashed lemon that has been painted purple is more typical of fruit than an apple.
C) A poodle is more typical of a dog than a golden retriever.
D) Abraham Lincoln is a typical American president.

Question 24

Participants are told that Flower A has a disease and are asked how likely it is that all flowers will have the same disease. Which of these is LEAST likely to affect the participant's opinion?

A) whether the participant is an expert of flowers
B) whether Flower A is a typical flower
C) whether Flower A had been mentioned recently and so has been primed
D) a participant's causal belief in how the disease infected Flower A

Question 25

Participants know that penguins are not typical birds, but they are certain that penguins are birds. This indicates that judgments about category membership:

A) depend on a judgment of typicality
B) are not settled entirely by an assessment of typicality
C) rely on comparing the example to a prototype
D) do not conform to the requirements of a definition

Question 26

The text points out that plums and lawn mowers share many traits. This suggests that:

A) there is a strong resemblance between plums and lawn mowers
B) resemblance is not influenced by shared traits
C) in judging resemblance, we must determine which traits matter and which do not
D) distinctive traits, not shared traits, determine resemblance judgments

Question 27

Which of these is NOT true about a heuristic strategy?

A) It may categorize a bat as a type of bird.
B) We use it when we are particularly concerned about accuracy.
C) It emphasizes the resemblance of an object to the superficial features of a prototype.
D) It allows efficiency even if this implies a risk of occasional error.

Question 28

Evidence suggests that children believe that:

A) no matter how you changed a skunk's behavior or appearance, it would still be a skunk and not a raccoon
B) it is behavior that matters for category identity, so if a skunk learned to act like a raccoon, it would count as a genuine raccoon
C) it is appearance that matters for category identity, so if a skunk were altered to look like a raccoon, it would count as a genuine raccoon
D) it is the combination of behavior and appearance that matters for category identity, so both attributes would have to be changed to turn one organism into another

Question 29

Categorization is plainly influenced by judgments about resemblance, but it is also influenced by factors other than resemblance. Which of the following is NOT part of the evidence indicating the importance of these other factors?

A) People sometimes judge an object to be in a category despite the fact that the object has virtually zero resemblance to other objects in that category.
B) Resemblance plays a key role in the use of prototypes, but plays no role in the well-documented use of exemplars.
C) Resemblance is typically determined by relatively superficial perceptual features, but sometimes categorization depends on deeper essential properties of the category.
D) In order to make judgments according to resemblance, we must be guided by other beliefs about which properties matter; otherwise, our judgments of resemblance might be guided by irrelevant attributes of the object.

Question 30

Which of the following is NOT implied by the textbook's discussion of mutilated lemons and perfect counterfeits?

A) An object can be in a category even if the object has no resemblance to the category's prototype.
B) An object can be excluded from a category even if the object has a strong resemblance to the category's prototype.
C) The history of an object is sometimes crucial in determining the object's category membership.
D) Participants are unable to separate their judgments about category membership from their judgments about typicality.

Question 31

According to prototype theory, the "prototype" selected for comparison will NOT be the:

A) ideal for a category
B) average of various category members
C) same for every person
D) central tendency (middle) of all category members

Question 32

In making judgments about category membership, participants:

A) base their judgments entirely on a stimulus's typicality
B) will not judge a stimulus to be in the category unless the stimulus resembles the category prototype or category exemplars
C) are often able to make a distinction between typicality and actual category membership
D) generally base their judgment on factors other than typicality

Question 33

Reuben is visiting the aquarium and has just seen an octopus for the very first time. Reuben is therefore likely to have:

A) a definition for the concept of octopus
B) only exemplar-based knowledge for the concept of octopus
C) a prototype for the octopus concept
D) a prototype for the octopus concept and some exemplar-based knowledge

Question 34

Exemplar and prototype theories are similar in the following ways EXCEPT:

A) both theories require the triggering of a memory
B) both theories require previous memories to be averaged, or combined
C) both theories require a judgment of resemblance
D) conclusions for both processes are based on resemblance

Question 35

One study found that if participants were told a new fact about robins they would also believe that the new fact was true of ducks. However, if told a new fact about ducks, participants would not extrapolate this information to robins. This suggests that:

A) participants treat each category member independently (on a case-by-case basis) when applying new beliefs
B) participants are willing to make inferences from a typical case within a category to the whole category but not vice versa
C) new knowledge about a member of a category is unstable, leading to a change in a person's belief system only on rare occasions
D) beliefs within a theory are less likely to affect typical category members than atypical ones

Question 36

Is one theory of categorization (prototype vs. exemplar) better at explaining graded membership findings than the other?

A) Yes, prototype is better than exemplar.
B) Yes, exemplar is better than prototype.
C) It is uncertain-both theories can explain the findings.
D) It is uncertain-neither theory can explain the findings.

Question 37

The use of theories plays an important role in our conceptual knowledge. Which of these is NOT true about the theories involved in conceptual knowledge?

A) They provide a knowledge base on which we can rely when thinking about an object, event, or category.
B) They play a large part in determining how easily and how quickly we learn new concepts.
C) They are often as precise and as accurate as most scientific theories.
D) They often allow us to understand any new facts that we encounter about an object or category.

Question 38

A categorization heuristic strategy:

A) allows swift categorization of a target even if the strategy risks an occasional error
B) seeks accurate categorization even if the strategy is sometimes inefficient
C) predicts both inefficient and slow categorization
D) uses prototypes to promote accurate identifications

Question 39

In one procedure, participants were asked to judge which was a "better" even number: 4 or 18. The participants:

A) were unable to perform this absurd task
B) offered judgments that show that well-defined categories do not show the graded-membership pattern
C) regarded all of the even numbers as being "equivalently even"
D) made the judgment in a fashion that implied a graded-membership pattern for the category "even number"

Question 40

Two clinicians are asked to diagnose a patient who shows symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). The patient does not show any visible forms of depression. The first clinician believes that depression is an important cause of OCD and so does not diagnose the patient with OCD. The second clinician believes that depression is a by-product of OCD but not a root cause. Therefore, she diagnoses the patient as having OCD. This example illustrates that:

A) our beliefs and background knowledge influence how we categorize things
B) clinicians are often mistaken in their diagnosis
C) theories are often fallible and so should not be depended on in many situations
D) theories are not involved when placing a test case into a particular category

Question 41

A mutilated lemon will still be categorized as a lemon, while a counterfeit $20 bill will not be categorized as money. What does this say about categorization?

A) Psychologists will never understand categorization.
B) Category membership cannot be based on resemblance alone.
C) Category membership is based on previously encountered examples.
D) Prototype theory is the most accurate theory of categorization.

Question 42

A lemon that has been painted red, white, and blue and then ran-over by a car is still likely to be categorized as a lemon. Which of the following is NOT an accurate description of why this might be?

A) If it grew on a lemon tree, it will be considered a lemon.
B) The essential properties for being a lemon are still there.
C) Cause-and-effect relationships influence how we think about what an object is, and how it is categorized.
D) Superficial things like color do not play a role in categorization.

Question 43

Categorization is of great importance to cognitive tasks. Which of the following is LEAST likely to benefit from the ability to categorize?

A) learning new information
B) expanding current knowledge
C) generalizing to new situations
D) improving IQ

Question 44

Which of the following explanations is NOT discussed with respect to theories of categorization?

A) use definitions to create categories
B) use dissimilarity to determine category membership
C) create boundaries to separate categories
D) focus on the center of a bounded area

Question 45

Previous knowledge facilitates categorization in each of the following ways EXCEPT:

A) allows rapid learning of a new category
B) allows previous examples to be compared to the current situation
C) makes developing theories about a category easy
D) ensures categorization will be accurate