Deck 4: Instrumental Conditioning

Question 1

Mr. Loosigian is worried about Jerri, a girl who is struggling in his seventh grade class. He thinks about several different reasons why she might be having so much difficulty with her schoolwork. Which one of the possible reasons that he considers is consistent with a behaviorist perspective of learning?

A) "Maybe she isn't paying attention as much as she should be."
B) "Maybe I don't praise her enough when she does something well."
C) "Maybe she has trouble understanding the things she reads."
D) "Maybe she has trouble remembering things from one day to the next."

Answer 1

B

Question 2

Which one of the following alternatives best describes instrumental conditioning?

A) Learning to use man-made tools in order to accomplish difficult tasks more easily
B) Learning to behave in ways that either bring pleasure or reduce the likelihood of aversive events
C) Learning that certain stimuli in one's environment often bring either physical or psychological pain
D) Learning complex sequences of psychomotor behaviors (e.g., dribbling and then shooting a basketball)

Answer 2

B

Question 3

Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement?

A) Getting a new outfit you think is "cool"
B) Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework
C) Being told that you did a good job
D) Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Answer 3

D

Question 4

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two learning paradigms within the behaviorist tradition. A major difference between these two paradigms is that:

A) Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses.
B) Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli.
C) Classically conditioned responses are voluntary, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are elicited by specific stimuli.
D) Classically conditioned responses are elicited by specific stimuli, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are voluntary.

Question 5

Many operant conditioning theorists use the term reinforcement rather than "reward" because:

A) The term "reward" can refer only to a material reinforcer.
B) The term "reward" can refer only to a social reinforcer.
C) One type of reinforcement (negative reinforcement) is actually a form of punishment.
D) The term "reward" implies a consequence that most people would judge to be desirable.

Question 6

A child who was once spanked for running into a busy street no longer runs into the street. This can best be explained by which one of the following?

A) Pavlov's concept of extinction
B) Thorndike's original law of effect
C) Thorndike's revised law of effect
D) Skinner's basic principle of operant conditioning

Question 7

One effective educational practice is to chart students' progress over time so that students can see their improvement. These progress charts often lead to higher student achievement in the absence of other observable forms of reinforcement. The effectiveness of such charts in changing behavior illustrates the importance of reinforcement:

A) As a feedback mechanism
B) As an immediate, rather than delayed, consequence
C) As a delayed, rather than immediate, consequence
D) In standardized achievement testing

Question 8

Which one of the following is a primary reinforcer?

A) A cookie
B) A good grade
C) A thousand dollars
D) A feeling of pride about a job well done

Question 9

Six-year-old Jack has recently learned to appreciate the value of money, so his father assigns him some simple housekeeping chores to be performed throughout the week. He tells Jack that completion of these chores will earn him an allowance of one dollar every Saturday. Jack rarely completes his chores. From an operant conditioning perspective, which one of the following is most likely to be the reason why Jack is not doing his chores?

A) There is a delay in reinforcement.
B) Reinforcement is not contingent on the desired response.
C) Money is rarely an effective reinforcer for people.
D) The "reinforcer" is presented before the response.

Question 10

Bill's behaviors in Ms. Kennedy's class are really distracting to other students. For example, he whispers to the boy beside him when Ms. Kennedy is giving directions on how to do any assignment. He flings paper clips at a girl across the room. He makes strange grunting noises that a few classmates find amusing. Ms. Kennedy glares at him or admonishes him whenever he behaves in a distracting way, yet his inappropriate behaviors are increasing rather than decreasing. Which one of the following interpretations of this situation best explains why Bill's behaviors are increasing?

A) Ms. Kennedy is positively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
B) Ms. Kennedy is negatively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
C) Ms. Kennedy is vicariously reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.
D) Ms. Kennedy is punishing him for the distracting behaviors.

Question 11

Good grades are reinforcing to some children but not to others. Someone explaining this fact from an early operant conditioning perspective would say that good grades are most likely to be reinforcers to children who:

A) Have never received a grade above C
B) Come from middle-income or upper-income backgrounds
C) Have previously associated those grades with primary reinforcers
D) Have been told that good grades are important for getting a college scholarship

Question 12

Mr. Smart tells his students that they can do whatever they want for the first ten minutes of class but must then turn their attention to the day's assignment. The students are delighted with their ten minutes of free time but they don't attend to the assignment when it's time to do so. From an operant conditioning perspective, what mistake has Mr. Smart made?

A) There is a delay in reinforcement.
B) He has used negative reinforcement instead of positive reinforcement.
C) Free time is not an effective reinforcer for the students.
D) The "reinforcer" is presented before the response.

Question 13

Three of the following are examples of operant conditioning. Which one is not?

A) Andrew gives his dog Maggie a scrap of food from his plate whenever Maggie begs at the dinner table. Before long, Maggie is by Andrew's side begging at every meal.
B) Bart uses obscene words when he speaks in class. His teacher scolds him for such language in front of his classmates. Much to the teacher's dismay, Bart's use of obscene words increases.
C) Carol's room has been a disaster area for more than a month, with toys and clothes lying about everywhere. Carol's mother has told Carol that, once the room has been cleaned, they will spend a day at the zoo. There is no noticeable improvement in Carol's housekeeping habits.
D) Daniel once went to visit the woman next door, and she gave him a couple of homemade cookies. Now Daniel goes to see the woman almost every day after school and comes home a half hour later licking his lips.

Question 14

You are working with Jerome, a student in your classroom for whom the only effective reinforcer is something to eat, such as candy or raisins. You would like Jerome to find your praise reinforcing as well. From an operant conditioning perspective, your best strategy would be which one of the following?

A) Show Jerome that all his classmates respond positively to praise.
B) Whenever you give Jerome something to eat, give him praise as well.
C) Explain to Jerome that praise gives him feedback about the things he is doing well.
D) Explain to Jerome how important it is that he not be so reliant on concrete reinforcers.

Question 15

Which one of the following is the best example of a social reinforcer?

A) Getting a new outfit you think is "cool"
B) Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework
C) Being told that you did a good job
D) Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Question 16

Thorndike's observations of a cat trying to escape from a puzzle box led him to conclude that learning is:

A) a rapid process that occurs almost instantaneously
B) a process that is influenced by the organism's motivation
C) a gradual process that occurs through trial and error
D) a process that occurs regardless of the consequences of behavior

Question 17

Which one of the following is the best example of the Premack principle in action?

A) Getting a new outfit you think is "cool"
B) Being allowed to play basketball at a friend's house after you finish your homework.
C) Being told that you did a good job.
D) Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate.

Question 18

In comparison with his original law of effect, Thorndike's revised law of effect:

A) De-emphasized the role of punishment
B) Stressed the importance of practice
C) Stressed the importance of drive in learning
D) De-emphasized the importance of practice

Question 19

Feedback about one's performance is most likely to be effective when it:

A) Is given after a short delay (perhaps 30 minutes after the performance)
B) Describes only the things that the person has done correctly
C) Comes from a peer rather than from an authority figure
D) Provides information about how to improve

Question 20

Thorndike's original law of effect described the ways in which the learning of a response:

A) has an effect on other organisms
B) has an effect on stimuli in the environment
C) has an effect on other responses
D) is affected by the consequences of that response

Question 21

In the middle of a difficult exam, Robert tells his teacher that his stomach hurts, and the teacher immediately sends him to the school nurse. On several later occasions when he has a difficult test or assignment, Robert again tells his teacher that he doesn't feel well. Robert's frequent trips to the nurse have:

A) Been negatively reinforced
B) Led to superstitious behavior
C) Been reinforced on an intermittent schedule
D) Essentially been time-outs and so have been punished

Question 22

When Judy becomes verbally aggressive toward her peers, she is placed in a quiet and boring room for five minutes. The procedure being used here is most commonly known as:

A) time-out
B) systematic desensitization
C) response cost
D) in-house suspension

Question 23

DeeDee is upset that she has been taken off the basketball team because of a failing grade in her history class. The consequence of DeeDee's failure in history is an example of:

A) Positive reinforcement
B) Negative reinforcement
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 24

Alex loses his best friend Tyler when he tattles on Tyler at recess. Alex learns that tattling on friends is not a good idea. The loss of Tyler's friendship is an example of:

A) Negative reinforcement
B) Avoidance learning
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 25

In Mr. Marshall's classroom, students who acquire 10 points in one day can have 20 minutes of free time at the end of the day. Mr. Marshall awards points to his students for good behavior and deducts points if they misbehave. The deduction of points for misbehavior is known as:

A) time-out
B) restitution
C) response cost
D) in-house suspension

Question 26

David's mother insists that he vacuum the living room carpet. But when she sees how haphazardly he vacuums (he misses two-thirds of the carpet), she tells him, "Never mind, I'll do it!" David's escape of household chores is:

A) positively reinforced
B) negatively reinforced
C) punished
D) an example of passive avoidance learning

Question 27

Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

A) When Kevin does his homework, his teacher praises him profusely, to the point that it embarrasses him.
B) When Kathleen insults another student while waiting in line for lunch, her teacher moves her to the end of the line.
C) When Lucas complains about a classmate who is picking on him, his teacher allows him to come in from recess on bitterly cold days.
D) When Priscilla answers a teacher's question incorrectly, Mike teases her unmercifully.

Question 28

Stanley pokes his pencil point in Sharon's arm. The teacher gives him a stern look, and Stanley quickly puts his pencil back in his desk. The teacher's stern look is an example of:

A) Punishment I
B) Punishment II
C) Avoidance learning
D) Negative reinforcement

Question 29

Punishment received little attention in the psychological research literature prior to the 1960s, primarily due to the fact that:

A) Punishment was rarely used at that time.
B) Most people objected to punishment on religious or ethical grounds.
C) Early cognitivists argued that punishment has counterproductive effects.
D) Early behaviorists believed that punishment is ineffective in reducing behavior.

Question 30

When Mr. Thompson yells at his students, they all pay attention to him. Mr. Thompson is receiving ________ for his yelling behavior.

A) Punishment I
B) Punishment II
C) Positive reinforcement
D) Negative reinforcement

Question 31

When Rochelle has an on-the-road lesson as part of her driver education class, she fails to stop at a school crossing zone, as is required by law. Her instructor has her drive around the block several times and stop each time at the crossing zone. He also insists that, once she has stopped, she must wait at least eight seconds before proceeding. The instructor's strategy illustrates the use of _______ as a way of bringing about behavior change.

A) An intermittent reinforcement schedule
B) Positive-practice overcorrection
C) Response cost
D) Restitution

Question 32

Which one of the following statements best describes research findings regarding the effectiveness of verbally reprimanding (e.g., scolding) children?

A) Reprimands rarely reduce inappropriate behavior.
B) Reprimands are more effective when they're brief and unemotional.
C) Reprimands are effective only when they embarrass children to some extent.
D) Severe reprimands are more effective than mild ones.

Question 33

Linda wears bell-bottom pants to school, and her classmates tease her about them. As soon as she gets home, Linda throws the pants in the trash. Linda's being teased is an example of:

A) Negative reinforcement
B) Avoidance learning
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 34

Nadia is an only child who lives on a ranch that is located many miles from the homes of other children. Although she enjoys being with her peers at school, she is often physically aggressive toward them. School personnel have made many small attempts to curb Nadia's aggression (for example, they have scolded her, kept her in from recess, and put her in a time-out situation) but always without success. They are now thinking about taking more drastic measures. According to the textbook, which one of the following is most likely to be effective?

A) Putting Nadia in in-house suspension
B) Giving Nadia extra classwork in school subjects she knows well
C) Scolding Nadia in front of her peers about her inappropriate behavior
D) Suspending Nadia from school

Question 35

Peter does his homework immediately after he gets home from school so he won't have to worry about it any more. The consequence of Peter's doing his homework can best be categorized as:

A) Positive reinforcement
B) Negative reinforcement
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 36

Tammy is scolded for submitting a messy math homework paper, so she tries to do her math problems more neatly after that. The scolding Tammy received is an example of:

A) Positive reinforcement
B) Negative reinforcement
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 37

Which one of the following is the best example of punishment as behaviorists define it?

A) Kelly has been acting up in the classroom all year. Her teacher's frequent reprimands haven't made much of a difference in Kelly's behavior.
B) Leo is a real distraction to his classmates, often burping in a way that makes other students laugh. His teacher places him in a corner where others can't hear him burping.
C) Whenever Marvin has trouble sitting still, his teacher has him run up and down the hall three times to release pent-up energy.
D) After Nora spends a few minutes in the time-out room for hurting a classmate's feelings, she is more careful not to hurt her peers' feelings in the future.

Question 38

Which one of the following is the major reason why assigning extra schoolwork is not an appropriate punishment for classroom misbehavior?

A) It gives students the message that classwork is an unpleasant task.
B) It decreases the likelihood that students will do their assignments appropriately.
C) It asks students to perform tasks without the support they need to complete those tasks successfully.
D) It is negative reinforcement rather than punishment.

Question 39

Which one of the following accurately describes the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

A) Negative reinforcement is essentially the same as punishment, but without the negative connotations that punishment has.
B) Negative reinforcement increases the frequency of behavior, whereas punishment decreases it.
C) Negative reinforcement always decreases the frequency of behavior, whereas punishment often increases it.
D) Both consequences decrease behavior, but punishment is more likely to make students angry and defiant.

Question 40

When several students spray-paint graffiti on the school walls, the school principal insists that they paint the walls to cover the graffiti; the principal also insists that the students pay for the necessary paint out of their own pockets. The principal's strategy illustrates the use of _______ as a way of bringing about behavior change.

A) Restitution
B) Response cost
C) Positive-practice overcorrection
D) Punishment II

Question 41

Joshua stays in his dorm room rather than going to his required English composition class because he has difficulty with writing assignments. Joshua's lack of class attendance is an example of:

A) escape
B) active avoidance
C) passive avoidance
D) punishment

Question 42

Imagine that you want to improve a distractible child's ability to sit still and listen in class. Which one of the following procedures illustrates how you might use shaping to do so?

A) Explain the purpose of sitting quietly before reinforcement begins.
B) Reinforce the child for sitting still on some occasions, but not on others.
C) Reinforce the child for sitting still and listening for only a minute, then for progressively longer and longer periods of time.
D) Frequently change the specific consequence you use to reinforce sitting still-and-listening behavior (e.g., you might use candy a few times, then praise, then privileges, and so on).

Question 43

Mandy has learned that whenever her father comes home drunk, he is likely to beat her, so she usually goes to her friend's house before he has the chance. In this situation, the father's coming home drunk is:

A) Punishment I
B) Punishment II
C) An unconditioned stimulus
D) A pre-aversive stimulus

Question 44

Sharon has learned that her language arts teacher answers her questions willingly but that her biology teacher discourages questions. Sharon therefore asks questions in language arts but not in biology. In behaviorist terminology, Sharon is:

A) on a differential rate of low responding schedule
B) showing generalization
C) on a fixed interval schedule
D) under stimulus control

Question 45

A ski instructor is teaching a class of beginning skiers how to do a snowplow turn. She first teaches her students to stand with the fronts of their skis together and the backs of their skis far apart. She then has her students bend their knees slightly and lean forward in this "snowplow" position. After the students can do these two things successfully, the instructor has them add more behaviors to the sequence: gliding across the side of a gentle slope in a snowplow, putting their body weight on the downhill ski, gradually turning downhill, and so on. The instructor praises her students each time they successfully add a new movement to the sequence. In behaviorist terminology, the procedure that the ski instructor is using can best be described as:

A) the Premack principle
B) chaining
C) a differential schedule of reinforcement
D) higher-level conditioning
Note: Questions 44 and 45 both refer to the same situation.

Question 46

A school system is concerned that most of its high school students avoid taking mathematics courses because they are afraid of failing. Based on the discussion in the textbook regarding how to deal with avoidance behaviors, three of the following approaches to the problem might be helpful. Which of the following definitely would not help?

A) Allowing students to avoid taking mathematics until they develop more self-confidence about the subject matter
B) Teaching students to relax while they visualize doing a math assignment
C) Revising the math curriculum at all grade levels so that student success is more likely
D) Requiring all high school students to take at least one math class

Question 47

John and Bill have both learned that when they whine and complain, their teacher will hurry over to see what's wrong. John's teacher gives him attention every time he complains. However, Bill's teacher gives him attention only on some of the occasions he complains. Both teachers eventually realize that they are reinforcing the boys for inappropriate behavior and so both stop attending to the boys when they whine and complain. From a behaviorist perspective, we can predict that:

A) Both boys will whine and complain even more than before.
B) Both boys will stop their whining and complaining almost immediately.
C) Bill's complaining will decrease more rapidly than John's.
D) John's complaining will decrease more rapidly than Bill's.

Question 48

Martin went to two or three school dances but felt uncomfortable and self-conscious at them. Martin no longer goes to school dances. His lack of attendance is an example of:

A) Passive avoidance learning
B) Active avoidance learning
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 49

An avoidance behavior of a previously aversive situation is particularly difficult to extinguish because:

A) It has typically been reinforced on a fixed ratio schedule.
B) It has typically been reinforced on a variable ratio schedule.
C) It has typically been reinforced on a variable interval schedule.
D) The learner has no opportunity to learn that the situation is no longer aversive.

Question 50

Ms. Washington tries to ignore Warren when he tells jokes in class. But sometimes Warren tells a joke so funny that Ms. Washington laughs in spite of herself. Rather than decreasing his joke-telling, Warren begins telling even more outrageous jokes. Inadvertently, Ms. Washington is modifying Warren's joke-telling behavior through:

A) stimulus discrimination
B) extinction
C) shaping
D) negative reinforcement

Question 51

Which one of the following statements best describes behaviorists' two-step theory of avoidance learning?

A) Avoidance of the aversive stimulus is negatively reinforced by the presence of the pre-aversive stimulus.
B) Remaining in the situation is punished by the aversive stimulus; avoiding it is positively reinforced by the pre-aversive stimulus.
C) Fear of the pre-aversive stimulus is classically conditioned, and escape from that stimulus is negatively reinforced.
D) Escape responses occur prior to avoidance responses.

Question 52

Mr. McDonald wants his students to ask him for help on their geometry problems only after they have tried to solve the problems independently for at least five minutes. Mr. McDonald should reinforce students' help-seeking behavior on a ___________ schedule.

A) fixed ratio
B) variable ratio
C) differential rate of low responding
D) differential rate of high responding

Question 53

Aletha has been having difficulty in her first-period history class. One day Aletha misses the school bus. She has to walk to school and doesn't arrive until after her history class is over. Aletha begins missing the bus (and therefore arriving at school late) more and more frequently. Aletha's missing the bus is an example of:

A) Superstitious behavior
B) Avoidance learning
C) Punishment I
D) Punishment II

Question 54

In the basement of Marcy's college dormitory is a Coke machine that dispenses a can of Coke whenever someone firmly pounds the side of the machine. Marcy is delighted when she discovers this fact, because she can now get Cokes from the machine without having to pay for them. One morning a repairman fixes the machine. The next time Marcy goes to get a soft drink from the machine, she finds that her usual pounding strategy doesn't yield her the Coke she wants. But rather than insert the required coins to purchase a drink, Marcy begins pounding the side of the machine vigorously for several minutes. In behaviorist terminology, Marcy's behavior at this point can best be described as:

A) an extinction burst
B) discrimination
C) shaping
D) a response reinforced by an activity reinforcer

Question 55

At the beginning of the school year, Mr. Webber is concerned that Frances rarely does her independent seatwork. He begins praising Frances for each seatwork assignment she completes, and by January she is completing her assignments regularly. To make sure that the behavior continues in the years to come, what would behaviorists tell Mr. Webber to do now?

A) Praise her more often than before.
B) Praise her for only some of her completed assignments.
C) Punish Frances when she doesn't complete an assignment.
D) Switch from a social reinforcer to an activity reinforcer.

Question 56

Lori has learned that when she wants to say something in class, she must raise her hand before doing so. At home, however, she speaks without ever raising her hand ahead of time. We can say that the classroom has become a(n) ____ for Lori's hand-raising behavior.

A) generalized stimulus
B) antecedent stimulus
C) positive stimulus
D) negative reinforcer

Question 57

Tiffany is a hyperactive child who rarely sits still for more than 30 seconds at a time. Ms. Garcia decides to use positive reinforcement to help Tiffany learn to sit quietly in her seat during class time. Which one of the following approaches will bring about the fastest change in Tiffany's behavior?

A) A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
B) A variable interval schedule of reinforcement
C) Continuous reinforcement
D) A fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

Question 58

Which one of the following best illustrates Skinner's concept of superstitious behavior?

A) Alice is praised for her accurate bookkeeping at work. After that, she continues to keep accurate books at work. She also begins to be more careful about balancing her personal checkbook each month, even though she receives no reinforcement for doing so.
B) Bradley thinks his reinforcement for cleaning his apartment is the good feeling that a clean place gives him. In reality, he cleans only when company is coming, and it is his company that makes him feel good.
C) Charlotte misinterprets a teacher's praise as sarcasm and therefore as punishment rather than reinforcement.
D) David usually struggles with his geography exams, but he recently got high scores on two occasions when he wore a Denver Broncos sweatshirt to school. He now wears his Broncos sweatshirt whenever a geography test is scheduled.

Question 59

George has learned that if he pesters his father about using the family Cadillac enough times, his father will eventually break down and give George the keys to the Cadillac. George's "pestering" behavior is apparently being reinforced on a ___________ schedule.

A) variable ratio
B) variable interval
C) fixed interval
D) differential rate of low responding

Question 60

Warren has earned himself a reputation for being the class clown. His teacher, Ms. Washington, used to laugh at Warren's funny remarks, but is now trying to discourage Warren's disruptive behavior by ignoring his jokes. In behaviorist terminology, Ms. Washington is now trying to modify Warren's joke-telling behavior through:

A) stimulus discrimination
B) extinction
C) shaping
D) negative reinforcement

Question 61

Shelby rarely interacts with her peers. She is obviously quite lonely but apparently has no confidence in her ability to make friends. Using a behaviorist perspective, describe how you might help Shelby develop social skills through shaping. In your discussion, be sure to include:
a. The specific behavior(s) you would shape
b. A specific reinforcer you might use, and why you make the choice you do
c. The sequence of steps you might take as you shape the desired behavior

Question 62

You are giving tennis lessons to a beginning tennis player. Describe how you would teach the proper tennis swing through shaping. Specify:
a. A reasonable end result toward which you would work
b. A reinforcer you might use
c. The specific steps you would take during shaping
d. When you would use continuous reinforcement
e. When you would use intermittent reinforcement

Question 63

A teacher claps his hands together loudly three times as a way of reminding his students that they need to talk more quietly during their free time at the end of the day. In behaviorist terminology, his strategy can best be described as:

A) cueing
B) an intermittent schedule
C) negative reinforcement
D) a setting event

Question 64

A mother has been paying her daughter Melissa one dollar an hour to shovel snow off the driveway. At the end of January, the mother raises the rate to two dollars an hour. Based on research related to contrast effects, we can predict that Melissa will probably:

A) Shovel half as much snow as she would have otherwise, and then she'll quit.
B) Shovel the same amount of snow as she would have at a dollar-an-hour rate.
C) Shovel less snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour.
D) Shovel more snow than if the pay for shoveling snow had always been two dollars an hour.

Question 65

Distinguish among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Punishment I, and Punishment II. Give an example of each.

Question 66

Avoidance responses are extremely difficult to eliminate. Explain why this is so, and describe two different procedures that can effectively reduce or eliminate avoidance behavior.

Question 67

A physics teacher wants her students to work on several difficult physics problems that involve calculating velocity, acceleration, or time using the formula v = a $\times$ t. The teacher first has her students work on a few easy problems involving the formula. She then presents the more difficult problems; when she does so, she finds that her students are reasonably persistent in working at the problems, and most of them eventually solve the problems correctly. By using the easy problems to promote persistence in her students during the more difficult ones, the teacher is, in behaviorist terminology, using the concept of:

A) cueing
B) behavioral momentum
C) a DRL schedule
D) a DRH schedule

Question 68

In each of the following situations, a person is learning through either reinforcement or punishment. Classify each situation as involving one of these four consequences: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Punishment I, or Punishment II. Then explain why you chose the answer you did.
a. Because Danielle fails her math class, she is taken off the school dance squad.
b. Joe always does his homework assignments as soon as he gets them so he won't have to worry about them anymore.
c. Lisa and Fran are giggling together in the back of the classroom. Their teacher scowls at them. They are embarrassed and shut up.
d. A teacher finds that by yelling at her students when they get too rowdy, they will settle down and be quiet for a while. (Focus on what is happening to the teacher.)

Question 69

A member of your family never volunteers to wash the dishes after dinner. Explain how you might use shaping to teach dishwashing to this family member. Identify the reinforcer you would use, and describe your procedure in a step-by-step fashion.

Question 70

Mark's previous girlfriend always told him how handsome he looked whenever he wore his green sweater. Tonight Mark is going out with a new girlfriend and puts on the same green sweater. In behaviorist terminology, Mark is:

A) on a differential rate of low responding schedule
B) showing generalization
C) on a fixed interval schedule
D) showing stimulus discrimination

Question 71

Which one of the following teacher statements best illustrates cueing?

A) "Does anyone know why Henry isn't in school today?
B) "Thank you, everyone, for following the format I asked you to use on your math papers. It makes them easier for me to grade."
C) "Students who are sitting quietly will be the first ones to be dismissed."
D) "Who is planning to try out for the class play after school today?"

Question 72

Stacey dislikes physical education class because her classmates tease her about her lack of strength and coordination. One day Stacey unintentionally hits one of her classmates, and the teacher sends her to the principal's office for the remainder of the class time. Stacey becomes increasingly aggressive in class and so spends more and more time in the principal's office. Use one or more concepts and/or principles from behaviorism to explain why Stacey has become more (rather than less) aggressive.

Question 73

Explain the difference between continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement. When is each most useful?

Question 74

A teacher wants to encourage her students to work cooperatively with one another as they study classroom subject matter. If she were to use the concept of a setting event to encourage such cooperative behavior, she would:

A) Praise her students when they cooperate with one another.
B) First give students a task in which they can't work with one another.
C) Say "I like how Sally and John are helping one another today" loudly enough that other students can hear.
D) Provide instructional materials that students can use only by working together.

Question 75

Three of the following statements reflect contemporary perspectives of instrumental conditioning and reinforcement. Which one does not?

A) Punishment has a more pronounced effect on behavior than reinforcement does.
B) Behavior can sometimes be better understood if we look at complex environmental conditions rather than at simple, specific stimuli.
C) Instrumental conditioning can more adequately be explained when we talk about mental processes as well as observable events.
D) Any single consequence may be more or less reinforcing depending on a learner's particular motives at the time.