Exam 3: Laboratory Techniques and Instrumentation

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A stakeholder is any group or individual who can affect, or is affected by, the achievement of a corporation's purpose. Stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers, stockholders, banks, environmentalists, government and other groups who can help or hurt the corporation. There are many groups in society besides owners and employees to whom the corporation is responsible. The objectives of a corporation should only be achieved by balancing the often-conflicting interests of these different groups. By incorporating the participation of stakeholders in the governing boards, corporations are likely to respond to the interests of society as a whole. The incorporation of the participation of stakeholders recognizes that this involves governing boards setting an overall direction because they coordinate with the stakeholders of the organization. The corporation's coordinating function can be explained and justified by organizational concern for stakeholders, who identify moral and philosophical guidelines for the governance and management of corporations.

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Except for a few die-hard followers of Milton Friedman's philosophy, few people would agree that a business firm should fulfill only its economic and legal responsibilities and completely ignore ethical ones. The same is not right of discretionary responsibilities, however. Because discretionary responsibilities are defined by Carroll as purely voluntary, there is no pressure by anyone for a business firm to fulfill them. One can argue, nevertheless, that there are three good reasons to undertake these kinds of responsibilities. The first reason is the morality rationale-it may be the right thing to do, even though the company may not benefit and may even be hurt in the short run. The second reason is enlightened self-interest. If a firm undertakes a discretionary activity, it may gain short-run advantages in the marketplace (e.g., a company offering free day care to its employees may attract more potential workers at lower wages). It may also serve as a role model for government to legislate if and when that responsibility moves from discretionary to ethical and finally to legal (and thus the firm is able to do things its way instead of the government's way). The third reason is also one of enlightened self-interest. If a company develops a reputation for voluntarily doing socially useful activities even though it gains little economically in return, it may collect valuable public relations credit in people's minds. This may translate into better sales or a willingness on the part of some government agency to overlook a questionable activity the company might unthinkingly engage in.

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Moral relativism suggests that morality is relative to some personal, social, or cultural standard. There is no method for deciding whether one decision is better than another. For this very reason, many people justify their unethical positions, arguing that there is not one absolute code of ethics.