Exam 11: New Boundaries, New Roles- 1820-1856

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One major problem Americans faced in their goal of westward expansion was conflict with Native American tribes. As settlers moved west, they encroached on Native American lands, leading to violent clashes and forced removal of tribes from their ancestral territories.

Another major problem was the environmental challenges of the western frontier. Settlers had to contend with harsh climates, limited water sources, and unfamiliar terrain, making it difficult to establish successful agricultural and mining operations.

Additionally, the lack of infrastructure and communication networks posed a significant challenge for westward expansion. The vast distances and rugged landscapes made it difficult to build roads, bridges, and other necessary infrastructure, hindering the movement of people and goods.

Furthermore, the issue of governance and law enforcement in the newly acquired territories was a major problem. The federal government struggled to maintain control and enforce laws in the western frontier, leading to lawlessness and conflict between settlers and indigenous peoples.

Overall, the goal of westward expansion presented numerous challenges for Americans, including conflicts with Native Americans, environmental obstacles, infrastructure limitations, and governance issues. These problems shaped the history of the American West and had lasting impacts on the development of the United States.

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1. **Trail of Tears**: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to areas west of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian Territory. The removals took place in the 1830s, with the Cherokee nation's removal in 1838 being the most notorious. The reason this event is important is because it resulted in the deaths of thousands of Native Americans due to exposure, disease, and starvation, and it is a stark example of the U.S. government's policies of displacement and mistreatment of indigenous peoples.
2. **South Seas Exploring Expedition**: Also known as the United States Exploring Expedition, it was an important naval and scientific expedition conducted by the United States from 1838 to 1842. Led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, the expedition aimed to explore and survey the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands. It is significant because it contributed to the growth of scientific knowledge, helped expand American influence in the Pacific, and led to the discovery of Antarctica.
3. **Mulatto**: Historically, the term "mulatto" was used to describe a person of mixed white and black ancestry, specifically a person with one white and one black parent. The term is considered outdated and offensive today. It was important in the context of societies that implemented racial classification systems, as it was used to enforce social hierarchies and segregation under laws such as the "one-drop rule" in the United States.
4. **"Civilizational" argument for slavery**: This was a justification for slavery that posited that enslavement was beneficial for African people because it supposedly introduced them to Christianity and "civilized" society. Proponents of slavery used this argument to rationalize the institution as a force for good, despite its inherent brutality and violation of human rights. It was an important aspect of pro-slavery ideology in the 18th and 19th centuries.
5. **Josiah Nott**: A physician and surgeon from Alabama, Josiah Nott (1804–1873) was an influential figure in the field of medicine and also a proponent of polygenism, the belief that different races have different origins. He used this theory to support the institution of slavery and racial segregation. His work is important in understanding the pseudoscientific justifications for racism and slavery in the pre-Civil War United States.
6. **Indian Removal Act of 1830**: This was a law passed by the United States Congress during the presidency of Andrew Jackson. It authorized the President to negotiate with Native American tribes for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their ancestral homelands. The act led to the Trail of Tears and other forced relocations, and it is significant because it institutionalized a policy of displacement and cultural genocide against Native Americans.
7. **Coverture**: Coverture was a legal doctrine whereby, upon marriage, a woman's legal rights and obligations were subsumed by those of her husband. A married woman, or "feme covert," was not recognized as having independent legal existence apart from her spouse. This concept is important because it reflects the historical legal and social subordination of women and has been a key issue in the women's rights movement.
8. **Mudsill**: The term "mudsill" refers to a lower or base section of a building's foundation. In the context of social theory, it was used by pro-slavery advocates like James Henry Hammond to argue that there must be a lower class for the higher classes to rest upon. This "mudsill theory" was used to justify the existence of slavery and the subjugation of certain social groups. It is important as it highlights the classist and racist ideologies that underpinned slavery.
9. **Robert Dale Owen**: A social reformer and politician, Owen (1801–1877) was an advocate for women's rights, universal education, and labor reform. He was also a proponent of utopian socialism and co-founded the New Harmony community in Indiana. His work is important because it contributed to the early labor movement and the push for social reforms in the United States.
10. **Lowell Mill Girls**: The Lowell Mill Girls were female workers who came to work in industrial corporations in Lowell, Massachusetts, during the Industrial Revolution in the United States. The conditions they worked under and their organized strikes and protests are significant because they highlighted the labor exploitation of the time and were an early example of women's labor activism, contributing to the labor rights movement.