Exam 1: The Ancient World

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The principal centers of ancient American civilization are typically identified as:

1. **Mesoamerica**: This region includes central and southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and parts of Honduras. It was home to several influential civilizations, including:

- **The Olmecs**: Often considered the "mother culture" of Mesoamerica, they flourished from around 1200 to 400 BCE and are known for their colossal head sculptures.
- **The Maya**: They developed a complex civilization known for its hieroglyphic writing, advanced mathematics, astronomy, and monumental architecture, including pyramids and palaces. The Classic Maya period lasted from about 250 to 900 CE.
- **The Aztecs**: Arriving in the Valley of Mexico in the 13th century, they established their capital at Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico City) and developed a powerful empire until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.

2. **South America**:
- **The Inca Empire**: Based in the Andean region, the Inca created the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Their capital was Cusco, located in modern-day Peru, and they are known for their sophisticated road systems, architecture, and agricultural terraces. The empire reached its peak in the 15th century but was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century.
- **The Chavín**: Flourishing from around 900 to 200 BCE in the northern Andean highlands of Peru, they are known for their influence on religion and iconography in the region.
- **The Moche**: They were a culturally rich civilization that thrived along the northern coast of Peru from about 100 to 800 CE, known for their pottery, metalwork, and irrigation systems.
- **The Nazca**: Located in the southern coast of Peru, they are famous for the Nazca Lines, a series of large ancient geoglyphs in the Nazca Desert, created between 500 BCE and 500 CE.

3. **The Andean Region**: Apart from the Inca, this area also saw the rise of earlier civilizations such as the Tiwanaku, who were centered around Lake Titicaca in present-day Bolivia and Peru from about 500 to 1000 CE, and the Wari, who were contemporaneous with the Tiwanaku and are known for their urban planning and architecture.

4. **The Mississippi River Valley**: Home to the Mississippian culture, which flourished from around 800 to 1600 CE, with Cahokia being one of the most notable and largest settlements.

5. **The Southwest United States**: This region was home to the Ancestral Puebloans (also known as the Anasazi), who built cliff dwellings and large apartment-like structures called pueblos, and the Hohokam, known for their extensive irrigation canal systems.

These civilizations were characterized by their complex social structures, diverse cultures, and advancements in various fields such as agriculture, architecture, art, and astronomy. They left behind a rich legacy that continues to be studied and admired today.