Chat with AIExam 2: Experiments in Behavioural Economics
What is the Duhem-Quine problem?
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Answered by Examlex AI CopilotThe Duhem-Quine problem, also known as the Duhem-Quine thesis or underdetermination, is a philosophical problem concerning the testing of scientific hypotheses. It arises from the recognition that empirical evidence alone cannot determine which of a set of competing hypotheses is true, because the evidence is typically consistent with more than one hypothesis. The problem is named after the French physicist Pierre Duhem and the American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine, who both contributed to the formulation and analysis of the problem.
The Duhem-Quine problem highlights two related issues:
1. **Holism in Testing**: According to Duhem, when a scientist tests a hypothesis, they are not testing it in isolation but rather in conjunction with a set of auxiliary assumptions and background theories. These auxiliary assumptions include things like the initial conditions, the correctness of the instruments, and the validity of the underlying theories. If the prediction derived from the hypothesis fails to match the experimental results, it is not clear whether the hypothesis itself is at fault or if one of the auxiliary assumptions is incorrect. This is known as the problem of holism in testing.
2. **Underdetermination of Theories by Data**: Quine extended Duhem's insight to all of human knowledge, arguing that our scientific theories are underdetermined by the empirical data. This means that for any given set of observations, there can be multiple theories that can account for the data, and empirical evidence alone cannot decide which one is correct. This underdetermination exists because one can always make adjustments to the auxiliary assumptions to save a favored theory from being falsified by the evidence.
The Duhem-Quine problem poses a challenge for the traditional view of the scientific method, which suggests that hypotheses can be conclusively tested against empirical evidence. It implies that scientific theories are not as firmly grounded in empirical evidence as one might think, and that the process of theory choice involves considerations that go beyond the empirical data, such as simplicity, coherence with other theories, and explanatory power.
In response to the Duhem-Quine problem, some philosophers and scientists argue for a more holistic and pragmatic approach to scientific testing and theory choice. They suggest that scientific progress is not a straightforward process of hypothesis testing but involves a complex interplay of theoretical and empirical considerations, where the scientific community plays a crucial role in determining which theories are accepted or rejected.
What is the difference between a "single blind" and "double blind" experimental protocol? How do "double blind" protocols in the medical sciences differ from "double blind" protocols in the social sciences?
(44) Answered by Examlex AI CopilotA "single blind" experimental protocol is one in which either the participants or the researchers are unaware of which participants are receiving the treatment and which are receiving a placebo or control. This helps to reduce bias in the study by preventing the participants or researchers from influencing the results based on their knowledge of who is receiving the treatment.
On the other hand, a "double blind" experimental protocol is one in which both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving the placebo or control. This further reduces bias and ensures that the results are not influenced by the expectations or beliefs of either the participants or the researchers.
In the medical sciences, "double blind" protocols are used to test the effectiveness of new drugs or treatments. This is important because the researchers' knowledge of who is receiving the treatment could influence their assessment of the outcomes. By keeping both the participants and the researchers blind to the treatment allocation, the results are more reliable and unbiased.
In the social sciences, "double blind" protocols are often used in studies involving human behavior or psychology. In these studies, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of the specific hypotheses being tested or the conditions being manipulated. This helps to prevent any unintentional influence on the results and ensures that the findings are based on the actual effects of the variables being studied.
Overall, the main difference between "double blind" protocols in the medical and social sciences lies in the specific context and variables being studied, but the fundamental purpose of reducing bias and ensuring the reliability of the results remains the same.
What is the distinction between "learn while you earn" and "learn before you earn"? What are the implication of these two different payment schemes on learning to pick the optimal strategy in games that are complex and require substantial learning on the part of participants over time?
(32) Answered by Examlex AI CopilotThe distinction between "learn while you earn" and "learn before you earn" lies in the timing of when learning takes place in relation to earning.
"Learn while you earn" refers to a payment scheme where individuals are able to earn money while they are still in the process of learning. This could be through on-the-job training, apprenticeships, or other forms of experiential learning where individuals are compensated for their time and effort as they acquire new skills and knowledge.
On the other hand, "learn before you earn" implies that individuals must first invest time and resources into learning before they are able to start earning money. This could be through traditional education, such as attending college or vocational training programs, where individuals must complete their studies before entering the workforce and earning a salary.
The implication of these two different payment schemes on learning to pick the optimal strategy in complex games is significant. In a complex game that requires substantial learning over time, such as a strategic board game or a competitive video game, the payment scheme can influence the approach that participants take towards learning and decision-making.
Under a "learn while you earn" scheme, participants may be more inclined to take risks and experiment with different strategies as they are not solely reliant on their performance for income. This could lead to a more dynamic and adaptive approach to learning, as individuals are able to learn from their mistakes and adjust their strategies in real-time.
On the other hand, a "learn before you earn" scheme may incentivize individuals to take a more cautious and calculated approach to learning, as they need to ensure that they have mastered the necessary skills before they can start earning. This could lead to a more methodical and deliberate approach to learning, as individuals may be more focused on acquiring a deep understanding of the game before they begin to play for rewards.
Overall, the payment scheme can have a significant impact on the learning and decision-making strategies of participants in complex games. It is important to consider how the timing of earning and learning can influence the incentives and behaviors of individuals, and how this can ultimately impact their ability to pick the optimal strategy in a complex and evolving game environment.
When some economists criticize experiments as lacking "external validity", what is it that they are referring to? Your answer should contain at least two separate points; one regarding the nature of the stakes and the other relating to the use of student participants.
(31) What is an "experimenter demand effect"? What is the difference between "cognitive experimenter demand effect" and "social experimenter demand effect"?
(33) In paying participants in experiments, what is a potential drawback in paying for all rounds? What is potential drawback in paying for one randomly selected round?
(34) What is one way of creating a series of one-shot games in the lab? What is the difference between stranger matching, perfect stranger matching and fixed matching?
(34) What is the difference between a "between subjects" treatment and a "within subjects" treatment?
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