Deck 7: Attitudes, Beliefs and Consistency

Question 1

Which of the following is the best example of a positive deliberate attitude toward snakes?

A) John doesn't get tense when he sees snakes.
B) John would probably watch a TV about snakes.
C) John says that he adores snakes.
D) John is reading a book right now about snakes and other reptiles.

Answer 1

John says that he adores snakes.

Question 2

People often have inconsistent automatic and deliberate attitudes but do not realize it. How is this possible?

A) People are consciously aware only of their deliberate attitudes.
B) People are consciously aware only of their automatic attitudes.
C) People are consciously aware of both their deliberate attitudes and their automatic attitudes, but use them at different times.
D) People are consciously aware of neither their deliberate attitudes nor their automatic attitudes.

Answer 2

People are consciously aware only of their deliberate attitudes.

Question 3

Deliberate attitudes can be defined as ____ evaluative responses.

A) controlled, conscious
B) controlled, unconscious
C) automatic, conscious
D) automatic, unconscious

Answer 3

controlled, conscious

Question 4

____ are pieces of information, facts, or opinions; ____ are broad evaluations toward some object or issue.

A) Attitudes; associations
B) Associations; beliefs
C) Attitudes; beliefs
D) Beliefs; attitudes

Question 5

When one Facebook user reads an article and likes it, ____.

A) the odds of others liking it are only modestly increased, by about 8%
B) someone else who reads it is 32% more likely to also "like" it
C) the odds of others liking it are increased, but only when there are relatively few likes, generally less than 15,000
D) it can paradoxically decrease the likelihood that others will like it, because they do not want to be just one of the masses

Question 6

Research indicates that Facebook users tend to be ____ than nonusers.

A) more narcissistic
B) more conscientious
C) less extraverted
D) more socially lonely

Question 7

As discussed in the text, ____ serve interpersonal functions.

A) attitudes but not beliefs
B) beliefs but not attitudes
C) both attitudes and beliefs
D) neither attitudes nor beliefs

Question 8

Which statement best describes the influence of attitudes?

A) Attitudes impede decision-making processes.
B) Attitudes make it more difficult to adjust to new situations.
C) Attitudes require more than a "gut-level" response.
D) Attitudes help us adapt.

Question 9

In general, beliefs are used for ____.

A) choosing
B) explaining
C) identifying
D) motivating

Question 10

Jerome thinks that it is going to be crowded at the gym today. This is an example of a(n) ____.

A) dual attitude
B) belief
C) implicit attitude
D) attitude

Question 11

As defined in the text, dual attitudes consist of ____.

A) automatic attitudes and deliberate attitudes
B) conditioned attitudes and unconditioned attitudes
C) cognitions and emotions
D) beliefs and opinions

Question 12

Social media research has found that about ____ of job applicants are rejected because of what a prospective employer found on their Facebook page.

A) 15%
B) 25%
C) 35%
D) 45%

Question 13

In general, attitudes are used for ____.

A) choosing
B) identifying
C) motivating
D) explaining

Question 14

Research on the spread of attitudes on Facebook indicates that a(n) ____ fits the pattern.

A) flood
B) contagious disease
C) fundamentally random
D) landslide

Question 15

In distinguishing between beliefs and attitudes, it is useful to recognize that beliefs help people ____ while attitudes help people ____.

A) explain things; make choices
B) make choices; explain things
C) rationalize occurrences; explain things
D) explain things; rationalize occurrences

Question 16

Which statement best explains why humans have attitudes?

A) Attitudes are an evolutionary artifact that were useful a long time ago.
B) Attitudes increase the complexity in making decisions.
C) Attitudes make it harder for people to adapt and adjust to new situations.
D) Attitudes aid humans in making decisions and choices.

Question 17

Automatic attitudes can be defined as ____ evaluative responses.

A) controlled, conscious
B) controlled, unconscious
C) slow, conscious
D) fast, unconscious

Question 18

Research on racism has indicated that ____.

A) people who sincerely espouse racial equality may have negative automatic attitudes towards individuals of different races
B) at least where racism is concerned, people's automatic and deliberate attitudes are consistent with each other
C) individuals who espouse racist beliefs often have non-racist automatic attitudes
D) it is virtually impossible to determine deliberate attitudes based on automatic attitudes

Question 19

Zelda says that she likes dogs and that she is not afraid of them. But she gets visibly tense whenever a dog approaches, and refuses to visit any of her dog-owning friends at their homes. It appears that even though she says she likes dogs, Zelda has a negative ____ attitude toward them.

A) deliberate
B) automatic
C) conditioned
D) unconditioned

Question 20

As discussed in the textbook, people's deliberate attitudes are not always consistent with their automatic attitudes. This can occur as a result of ____.

A) self-presentation
B) lack of awareness
C) both self-presentation and lack of awareness
D) neither self-presentation nor lack of awareness

Question 21

In Aldous Huxley's book Brave New World, infants develop a fear of books after books are repeatedly presented with a scary loud noise. In this fictional example, the loud noise is a(n) ____.

A) conditioned stimulus
B) conditioned response
C) unconditioned stimulus
D) unconditioned response

Question 22

The mere exposure effect refers to the tendency for people to ____.

A) come to like something simply because other people like it
B) come to like something simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly
C) come to think that something is common, or prevalent, simply because they like it
D) come to think that something is common, or prevalent, simply because they see or encounter it repeatedly

Question 23

Dr. Cross conducts a study in which she repeatedly exposes Lucy to a neutral object (a small painting). The study is neither enjoyable nor painful for Lucy. Assuming that Lucy had a neutral attitude toward the painting at the beginning of the study, how should we expect her to feel about the painting by the end of the study?

A) She will probably hate it.
B) She will probably dislike it a little.
C) She will probably like it a little.
D) There will probably be no change in her attitude at all.

Question 24

Research suggests that the idea that "familiarity breeds contempt" ____.

A) is almost always true, regardless of the circumstances
B) is almost always false, regardless of the circumstances
C) is almost always true, unless people initially have a very favorable attitude
D) is almost always false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude

Question 25

Classical conditioning can be thought of as a type of ____.

A) associative learning
B) imitation
C) instrumental learning
D) vicarious learning

Question 26

Which of the following is the best example of the mere exposure effect?

A) Eduardo starts to think that a new band is cool simply because other people around him think it is cool.
B) Keisha starts to like a girl at school simply because she has seen her, semester after semester, in so many of her classes.
C) Michael loves hip hop music. As a result, he tends to overestimate how much other people like to hip hop.
D) Frances works in a hospital, and encounters doctors and nurses all day long. As a result, she tends to overestimate how many people work in the medical industry; to her, it seems as if almost everyone does!

Question 27

Research has shown children can identify good and bad categories, and especially the "bad", very early in life. This highlights which psychological principle?

A) Good and bad are innate categories.
B) Good and bad are arbitrary categories.
C) Bad is stronger than good.
D) Good is stronger than good.

Question 28

Which of the following statements is MOST accurate regarding how people form evaluations of other people and of other stimuli?

A) People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of other people within the first few microseconds of meeting them; but they do not do this for other stimuli (e.g., nonsense words).
B) People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of most stimuli (e.g., nonsense words) within the first few microseconds of experiencing them; but they do not do this when meeting new people.
C) People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli (e.g., other people, animals, shoes) if they have encountered similar stimuli in the past; but they do not do this when stimuli are highly unfamiliar or unclassifiable.
D) People form unconscious, automatic evaluations of all types of stimuli, regardless of their familiarity with those stimuli.

Question 29

In the process of classical conditioning, a(n) ____.

A) neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
B) unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
C) unconditioned response becomes a conditioned response
D) conditioned stimulus becomes an unconditioned stimulus

Question 30

Research suggests that the mere exposure effect ____.

A) is unique to humans (does not occur among other animals)
B) occurs via the conscious system only
C) is unique to humans (does not occur among other animals) AND occurs via the conscious system only
D) is NOT unique to humans and does NOT occur via the conscious system

Question 31

Social psychologist John Bargh has stated that "we have yet to find something the mind regards with complete impartiality, without at least a mild judgment of liking or disliking." He was referring to ____.

A) the fact that people tend to automatically categorize others as "in-group" members or "outgroup" members
B) the mere exposure effect
C) the fact that people make unconscious, immediate evaluations of virtually everything they encounter
D) belief perseverance

Question 32

Suppose that you show your uncle an abstract painting that you have made, and ask for his immediate, unedited reaction. Your uncle says he has no opinion about it. "I am not familiar with abstract art," he tells you, "therefore I don't know how to evaluate it; and I have no intuitive feeling about it." Could this be possible?

A) No. Research suggests that he will have made an automatic evaluation of your painting even though he is unfamiliar with abstract art. (He may be out of touch with this automatic evaluation, however.)
B) Yes. Research suggests that people only make automatic evaluations when they are highly familiar with the stimulus category; your uncle will probably need more time to make a conscious opinion.
C) Yes. Research suggests that people only make automatic evaluations of other people-not of stimuli such as paintings. Your uncle will probably need more time to form a conscious opinion of your painting.
D) It is impossible to say; some people form automatic evaluations about everything (and if your uncle is one of these people, then he is lying when he says he has no opinion), but other people form automatic evaluations only sometimes.

Question 33

Research suggests that the abstract categories "good" and "bad" are ____.

A) not acknowledged by children until they reach ages 9-10
B) not acknowledged by children until they reach ages 5-6
C) understood by children as early as age 2 1/2, if not earlier
D) understood even at birth, and certainly by 3 months after birth

Question 34

Research on embodied attitudes suggests that ____.

A) randomly assigned body movements can shape attitudes toward what we hear
B) attitudes are embodied in beliefs and emotions
C) body movement is unrelated to attitudes
D) leaning forward promotes negative attitudes

Question 35

Which scientist proposed the notion of embodied attitudes?

A) Charles Darwin
B) Leon Festinger
C) Robert Zajonc
D) Ivan Pavlov

Question 36

In 1968, social psychologist Robert Zajonc proposed that "____ of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it."

A) mere repeated exposure
B) affective forecasting
C) excitation transfer
D) attitude polarization

Question 37

In a classic study, the word Dutch was systematically paired with positive words (e.g., vacation, gift), whereas the word Swedish was paired with negative words (e.g., bitter, failure). When tested afterward, participants ____.

A) tended to maintain their rating of the words Dutch and Swedish the same as before the test
B) rated the word Dutch more positively than the word Swedish
C) associated the word Dutch with the positive words but did not associate the word Swedish with the negative words
D) associated the word Swedish with the negative words but did not associate the word Dutch with the positive words

Question 38

According to the text, possessing an attitude about something increases ____ of decision-making.

A) the speed and the quality
B) the speed but not the quality
C) the quality but not the speed
D) neither the speed nor the quality

Question 39

Suppose that Sam disliked reggaeton the very first time he heard it. How should we expect his attitude to change (if at all) if he hears it several more times?

A) He will begin to dislike reggaeton less and less.
B) He will begin to dislike reggaeton more and more.
C) It is impossible to say; first impressions are fundamentally different from (and not always similar to) later attitudes.
D) His attitude is likely to stay exactly the same across repeated exposure.

Question 40

Research suggests that the idea that "familiarity breeds liking" ____.

A) is generally true
B) is generally false
C) is generally true, unless people initially have a very favorable attitude
D) is generally false, unless people initially have an unfavorable attitude

Question 41

Operant conditioning is also sometimes referred to as ____.

A) instrumental learning
B) effort justification
C) vicarious learning
D) learning by example

Question 42

Beth and Jean are talking about welfare reform in America. Beth is very passionate about the issue, and makes strong statements about her views. Jean later e-mails Beth an article which contains some information that is consistent with Beth's views, as well as some information that is inconsistent with Beth's views. Beth chooses to believe the consistent information but discounts the inconsistent information. As a matter of fact, after reading the article and thinking about the data it contained-even though these data were mixed-Beth actually feels even more passionate and more strongly about her position. This is an example of ____.

A) anchoring and adjustment
B) informational influence
C) attitude polarization
D) cognitive coping

Question 43

Henry's mother always praises him when he practices the piano and denies him dessert when he doesn't. Henry's mother is apparently employing techniques based on ____ in order to encourage her son to practice more.

A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) social learning
D) attitude polarization

Question 44

Which of the following is the best example of operant conditioning?

A) You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
B) Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.
C) You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.
D) After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.

Question 45

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing those behaviors, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing those behaviors. This type of learning is known as ____.

A) instrumental learning
B) social learning
C) classical conditioning
D) operant conditioning

Question 46

Paul is trying to train his puppy, Cupcake. He yells "Bad dog!" whenever Cupcake fails to do what he wants. Paul seems to be using ____.

A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) social learning
D) attitude polarization

Question 47

Attitude polarization refers to the finding that ____.

A) when people reflect on a given attitude, their position on that attitude tends to become more extreme
B) when people reflect on a given attitude, they tend to become more open-minded with respect to that attitude
C) people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have extreme views about than issues that they have moderate views about
D) people are more likely to spend time reflecting on issues that they have moderate views about than issues that they have extreme views about

Question 48

Hazing rituals make use of the idea of ____.

A) effort justification
B) cognitive coping
C) social learning
D) dual attitudes

Question 49

Which of the following is the best example of social learning?

A) You notice that many of your classmates are comfortable speaking with professors after class. Even though you are usually shy, you therefore decide that you will try to speak with professors after class too.
B) Every time you wear the poncho you purchased in Mexico, you think fondly about the time that you spent there.
C) You ask for an extension on a paper that is due for class, your teacher says yes, and you still end up with a really good grade. This leads you to ask other teachers for extensions as well.
D) After going to the same dentist for many years, you develop a fondness for your dentist and for the other people who work in her office.

Question 50

Social learning is also sometimes referred to as observational learning or ____.

A) instrumental learning
B) justified learning
C) vicarious conditioning
D) conditional learning

Question 51

Research suggests that the more people think about their attitudes, the stronger their attitudes tend to become. For example, the more a Lakers fan thinks about how much she likes the Lakers, the more of a die-hard fan she is likely to become. This effect is called ____.

A) attitude polarization
B) the sentiment effect
C) the mere exposure effect
D) belief perseverance

Question 52

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. This most clearly illustrates ____.

A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) the mere exposure effect
D) social learning

Question 53

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the dogs' salivation was ____.

A) a conditioned response
B) an unconditioned response
C) a neutral stimulus
D) both an unconditioned response and a conditioned response

Question 54

According to research studies, people who hold strong attitudes toward an issue are least likely to do which of the following?

A) Show attitude polarization if they think about the issue.
B) Evaluate relevant information in a biased manner.
C) Seek out relevant information from outgroup members.
D) Seek out information that supports their initial view.

Question 55

According to the text, what might best explain the development of prejudice against social groups that are frequently associated with negative information in the media, such as Muslims being associated with terrorism?

A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) vicarious learning
D) observational learning

Question 56

Kevin has just moved to a new neighborhood. In his old neighborhood, everyone wore Vans and board shorts, but he notices that the kids on his new block are wearing Nikes and basketball shorts. He also notices that they tease people who are not dressed this way. Kevin immediately asks his mom to take him to the store to buy new clothes. What has taken place here?

A) attitude polarization
B) the mere exposure effect
C) observational learning
D) operant conditioning

Question 57

According to the principles of ____ people are relatively likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and relatively unlikely to repeat behaviors that have been punished.

A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) vicarious learning
D) effort justification

Question 58

Early research on classical conditioning was performed with dogs. In certain variations of this research, experimenters repeatedly presented dogs with meat powder just after ringing a bell. The dogs (who would naturally salivate after being exposed to meat powder) learned to associate the bell with the meat powder, and began to salivate as soon as they heard the bell. In this research, the bell served as a(n) ____.

A) unconditioned stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
B) conditioned stimulus that became an unconditioned stimulus
C) neutral stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus
D) unconditioned stimulus that became a neutral stimulus

Question 59

One technique that advertisers often use to influence consumers is celebrity endorsement. The logic works like this: If people like Catherine Zeta-Jones and repeatedly see T-Mobile products together with Catherine Zeta-Jones, then people will learn to associate T-Mobile with her and will in turn like T-Mobile more. That is, celebrity endorsement is expected to lead to ____.

A) operant conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) vicarious learning
D) observational learning

Question 60

Suppose that Dylan has a new girlfriend whom he really likes. He programs his cell phone so that every time his new girlfriend calls, his phone plays the new Justin Timberlake single. After he has had his phone programmed this way for a little while, he notices that he feels happy whenever he hears the Justin Timberlake song. What is the best term for the role of the Justin Timberlake song?

A) cognitive inference
B) behavioral reward
C) generalization
D) conditioned stimulus

Question 61

According to cognitive dissonance theory, discrepancies between attitudes and behaviors produce ____.

A) unpleasant memories
B) psychological discomfort
C) pleasant memories
D) psychological comfort

Question 62

In general, people do not like to suffer, work hard, or make sacrifices. If and when they do these things, they want to feel that their efforts were worthwhile. Thus, even when people's efforts do not actually seem to have paid off, people will nonetheless try to convince themselves that they suffered for a good reason. This tendency is known as ____.

A) effort justification
B) attitude polarization
C) a self-fulfilling prophecy
D) the false consensus effect

Question 63

Last summer, Fabia applied for three jobs. The first required a resume, but nothing else. The second required both a resume and a long personal statement. The third required a resume and indicated that a long personal statement was optional (recommended but not required; Fabia went ahead and wrote one anyway). Suppose that Fabia was turned down by all three jobs. Which rejection was she probably MOST upset about?

A) The rejection by the first job
B) The rejection by the second job
C) The rejection by the third job
D) The rejections by the second and third jobs (equally)

Question 64

Comer and Laird's (1975) study told some participants that they would be doing a worm-eating task. After a short period during which the participants could contemplate worm eating, the experimenter told them there was a mistake, and that they could choose between worm-eating and weight discrimination tasks. What percent of the participants chose to stay with the worm-eating task when given a more emotionally neutral (weight discrimination) alternative?

A) 100%
B) 80%
C) 50%
D) 10%

Question 65

In a study conducted in Mauritius, young men who participated in the Kavadi, a painful religious ritual requiring piercing the skin with needles, dragging a cart attached by hooks to the skin, and climbing a mountain barefoot, ____.

A) reduced identification with the larger social group
B) increased prosocial behavior
C) increased bias against the outgroup
D) decreased donations to the temple

Question 66

How does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance?

A) Effort justification is a type of cognitive dissonance.
B) Effort justification precedes cognitive dissonance.
C) Effort justification is often a motive for cognitive dissonance.
D) Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance.

Question 67

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) performed a famous experiment on cognitive dissonance in which subjects were asked to lie to a fellow student (about how fun a psychology experiment was) for either $1 or $20. For subjects in the $1 condition, dissonance was created because these subjects thought to themselves: "I am a nice, ethical person, but I have just been mean and told a lie." It appears that the $1 subjects were ultimately able to reduce this dissonance by thinking to themselves: ____.

A) "I did not really tell a lie because the experiment was not that boring. In fact, the more I think about it, the more I think that it was kind of fun!"
B) "I know I told that person a lie. But so what? There are bigger problems in this world!!"
C) "Lying is a terrible thing. I swear that I will never do it again."
D) "Whatever! I got $1 for doing almost nothing! Good deal!!"

Question 68

In a study conducted in Mauritius, young men participated in a painful religious ritual, watched other young men participate in the ritual, or sang and prayed. The young men who ____ identified more with the larger social group as a result of their participation.

A) performed the painful ritual but did not watch it
B) watched others perform the painful ritual but did not perform it
C) sang and prayed as their part in the ritual
D) performed or watched others perform the painful ritual

Question 69

One of the reasons university officials have so much difficulty in eliminating hazing rituals is that ____.

A) group members believe they increase the strength of ties to the group
B) the secrecy surrounding the rituals makes them difficult to eliminate
C) group members believe they are entitled to set their own rules
D) the rituals are really not that dangerous or humiliating anymore

Question 70

With ____, people rationalize their behavior so as to bring their attitudes into line with their actions.

A) subjective norms
B) attitude polarization
C) divergent bias
D) cognitive dissonance

Question 71

Research indicates that people will sometimes choose to suffer as a result of simply expecting to suffer-but only if ____.

A) they have a reward system in place but have not given much thought to the upcoming prospect of suffering
B) they have low self-esteem
C) they have coped with the expectation of suffering by thinking about it and changed relevant beliefs and attitudes
D) they have not yet thought about the upcoming suffering

Question 72

In 1959, Festinger and Carlsmith conducted a classic experiment in which they asked participants to tell a lie (about how interesting a very boring study was). The researchers paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell this lie. The same participants were then asked how interesting they really thought the study was. What did the researchers find?

A) There was no difference between those paid $1 and those paid $20; both said that the (very boring) study was indeed boring.
B) There was no difference between those paid $1 and those paid $20; both said that the (very boring) study was in fact very interesting.
C) Compared to those paid $1, those paid $20 rated the study as much more interesting.
D) Compared to those paid $20, those paid $1 rated the study as much more interesting.

Question 73

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory most directly suggests that ____.

A) fraternity "hazing" is an effective way to promote group loyalty
B) most people engage in social loafing
C) twelve-person juries are likely to come up with different verdicts than are juries with four or fewer people
D) most people look to others when deciding how to behave in a group context

Question 74

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory could be most easily used to explain ____.

A) why people stay in long-term relationships when they are dissatisfied
B) why people live beyond their means and rack up credit card debt
C) why people engage in unprotected sex or drive after drinking alcohol
D) why people care so much about fitting in and gaining the approval of others

Question 75

The results of Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) study of cognitive dissonance suggest that ____.

A) if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more
B) people will rationalize their own questionable behavior no matter how much they are paid to do it
C) if people are paid more for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it more
D) if people are paid less for doing a questionable act, they will rationalize it less

Question 76

If the idea of effort justification is to be believed, the best way to get people to commit to a particular group is to ____.

A) make it somewhat difficult to join the group
B) let everyone join, since only the dedicated will stay
C) provide special benefits to those who join
D) make it clear that joining carries responsibilities

Question 77

Which one of the following statements best describes cognitive dissonance theory?

A) "People don't like to be hypocrites."
B) "People are very stubborn about holding onto their attitudes."
C) "People have a hard time seeing things from others' perspective."
D) "People prefer others who share their opinions and attitudes."

Question 78

In a study conducted in Mauritius, young men participated in a painful religious ritual, watched other young men participate in the ritual, or sang and prayed. The young men who ____ donated the least amount to the temple.

A) performed the painful ritual
B) watched others perform the painful ritual
C) sang and prayed as their part in the ritual
D) performed the painful ritual or watched others perform it

Question 79

Research on effort justification and cognitive dissonance theory might suggest that we will be more attracted to potential dating partners who ____ than potential dating partners who ____.

A) are physically attractive; are not
B) play "hard to get"; do not
C) are similar to us; are not
D) flatter us; don't

Question 80

According to cognitive dissonance theory, "we come to love the things we suffer for." For example, we tend to be especially loyal to groups that require severe or painful initiations. Why does this happen?

A) This happens because the goals themselves (the things that we suffer for) are actually always very valuable; otherwise, we wouldn't have suffered for them in the first place.
B) This happens because, deep down, people really like to suffer.
C) This happens because we are motivated to justify the time and effort we've spent on our choices.
D) This happens because classical conditioning is at play: when we finally reach our goals, our suffering ends. We therefore associate our goals with "end of suffering" and come to love them.