Deck 3: Conformity

Question 1

The impact of television commercials on very young children is reflected in the fact that:

A) most children express a desire to imitate the behavior of TV characters.
B) fewer than 20 percent of preschool-aged children asked for toys or food they saw advertised on TV.
C) very young children tend to be quite cynical about advertising claims.
D) according to their mothers, a majority of preschoolers were able to sing commercial jingles learned from television.

Answer 1

D

Question 2

In Asch's experiment, what percentage of subjects exercised complete independence-that is, what percentage never agreed with the erroneous judgments of the majority?

A) 75%
B) 50%
C) 25%
D) 0%

Answer 2

C

Question 3

In Johnson's "If it bleeds, it leads" study, over a six-month period, approximately what percentage of local news broadcasts depicted suffering or conflict?

A) 23 percent
B) 53 percent
C) 80 percent
D) 98 percent

Answer 3

C

Question 4

The news media's sensationalizing of events such as suicides and the Tylenol poisonings sometimes incites copycat suicides and copycat poisonings. This phenomenon is known as:

A) media proliferation.
B) reactive imitation.
C) emotional contagion.
D) forensic journalism.

Question 5

Asch's experiment sought to determine the influence of majority opinion on individual opinion along two dimensions-the size of the majority and its degree of unanimity. Which of the following statements correctly describes what Asch found out about these two key variables?

A) Individual opinion was not influenced by the size of the majority, but it was influenced by having a partner who also went against the majority.
B) Individual opinion was influenced by the size of the majority, but it was not influenced by having a partner who also went against the majority.
C) Individual opinion was not influenced either by the size of the majority or by the presence of a partner who also dissented.
D) Individual opinion was influenced by both the size of the majority and the presence of a partner who also went against the majority.

Question 6

During the 1988 Presidential campaign Willie Horton was candidate George Bush's (the elder) most valuable player because:

A) he contributed $2 million to his campaign even though it was illegally done.
B) he was Bush's top political campaign advisor.
C) Bush used Horton's crimes to criticize Dukakis's stance on crime.
D) Bush asked him to design central arguments against Dukakis's economic policy.

Question 7

According to research cited in your textbook, facts and figures can be effective in combating a fear campaign:

A) if the facts and figures are equally frightening.
B) if you present them in a one-sided argument.
C) if the facts and figures are tied to a solution to the problem.
D) if your audience has high self-esteem.

Question 8

In his study of the effects of media coverage of teenage suicides, David Phillips found that:

A) coverage of the confusion and grief surrounding the suicides produced a decrease in teen suicides following the coverage.
B) there was an increase in teen suicides following the coverage.
C) the suicide rate following the coverage remained surprisingly unchanged-pointing to the limited effects of media coverage of news events.
D) the suicide rate increased moderately at first, followed by a sharp decrease as mental health workers responded to the crisis.

Question 9

According to the text, what percent of tenth-grade students believed that TV commercials were truthful most of the time?

A) 4 percent
B) 33 percent
C) 60 percent
D) 80 percent

Question 10

According to Zimbardo, Ebbesen, and Maslach, who analyzed the content of elementary-school arithmetic texts, examples of math problems from most textbooks:

A) are intentional forms of propaganda designed to brainwash students.
B) subtly endorse and legitimize the capitalist economic system that is dominant in our society-presenting it as "natural and normal."
C) are value-free ways of teaching children the basics of mathematics.
D) reflect alternative systems of economics that threaten our society's established economic practices.

Question 11

Phillips's research on the impact of media coverage of car-crash suicides revealed that following a publicized suicide:

A) there was a decrease in single-car, one-passenger "suicide" accidents.
B) victims of "suicide" accidents tended to be of similar age as the victim of the publicized suicide.
C) there was an increase in multiple-car accidents.
D) there was an increase in pedestrian fatalities involving hit-and-run drivers.

Question 12

According to research on the television film, The Day After, which statement graphically depicted the aftermath of a nuclear attack on the United States?

A) Viewers thought that surviving a nuclear war was very unlikely, while nonviewers thought surviving a nuclear war was very likely.
B) Viewers were more preoccupied than usual with thoughts of nuclear war, while nonviewers were less preoccupied than usual with thoughts of nuclear war.
C) Viewers went into "denial" and believed that the movie presented a highly exaggerated depiction of the horrors of nuclear war.
D) Both viewers and nonviewers said they intended to work toward preventing nuclear war by supporting a nuclear-weapons freeze and other antinuclear activities.

Question 13

In Asch's study he manipulated the size of the majority against the participant. The size of the majority is considered the:

A) control variable.
B) dependent variable.
C) independent variable.
D) confounding variable.

Question 14

According to research cited in your textbook, familiarity has a powerful effect on us. Which of the following is not an example of this effect?

A) soft drinks that we have seen in an ad just once
B) photographs for places we have been to that we find most attractive
C) photographs of our faces that are mirror images (the way we see ourselves in the mirror)
D) the name of an insurance company repeated may times in television ads

Question 15

The Asch experiment forces subjects to choose between two powerful conflicting forces. They are:

A) their own sense perceptions and the influence of group opinion.
B) obedience and rebellion.
C) the desire to be "contrary" and the need to "fit in."
D) the contrived reality of the research laboratory and the "real world" contextual influences that operate outside of the experimental setting.

Question 16

In Johnson's "If it bleeds, it leads" study, local news broadcasts ______ content that depicted suffering or conflict.

A) were more likely than national broadcasts to show
B) were less likely than national broadcasts to show
C) were just as likely as national broadcasts to show
D) avoided leading with stories with

Question 17

Recent research suggests that many of the events covered on a news broadcast are selected based on their:

A) inclusion of minorities.
B) appeal to women.
C) current relevance.
D) entertainment value.

Question 18

Bobby, a sixth-grader, is working on a problem in his arithmetic book. The problem reads: "Mary and her sister are going to live in a new home soon. Their mother was able to buy a home in a new development at a very low percentage (5%) for only 15 years. How much more would their mother have had to pay over the life of the loan if she had taken out a 30-year loan at the same interest rate from the bank?" According to Aronson, Bobby's math problem might be considered by some people to be a subtle form of:

A) propaganda.
B) persuasion.
C) the inoculation effect.
D) a one-sided argument.

Question 19

In Johnson's "If it bleeds, it leads" study, over a six-month period, approximately what percentage of news broadcasts depicted suffering or conflict?

A) 23 percent
B) 53 percent
C) 80 percent
D) 98 percent

Question 20

Which of the following was not studied by Asch in his experiments on opinion and group pressure?

A) the effect of the size of the majority
B) the degree of unanimity of majority opinion
C) the effect of the "desertion" of a partner to the majority
D) the effect of the similarity of partners' social backgrounds on their willingness to form dissenting alliances against majority opinion

Question 21

Suppose you see an ad for a deodorant that focuses on how effective it is in comparison tests, how it compares in cost to other products, and that it is all-natural. The persuasion appeal is:

A) the central route.
B) the peripheral route.
C) the logical route.
D) the inoculation effect.

Question 22

Research in attitude change suggests that in order to be a credible source, a communicator should be both:

A) expert and trustworthy.
B) respected and feared.
C) attractive and intelligent.
D) trustworthy and intelligent.

Question 23

Petty and Cacioppo say the two routes to persuasion are:

A) the central and the peripheral.
B) the primacy and the recency.
C) the expert and the trustworthy.
D) the fluency and the probability.

Question 24

All other things being equal, the overwhelming weight of experimental evidence on fear and persuasion suggests that, in general, the more frightened a person is by a communication:

A) the more likely he or she is to come up with counterarguments that oppose the fear-arousing communication.
B) the more likely he or she is to refuse to take positive, preventive action.
C) the more likely he or she is to go into denial and refuse to listen to future communications on the same issue.
D) the more likely he or she is to take positive, preventive action.

Question 25

When lawyers and politicians want to persuade, they often use:

A) strictly central route arguments.
B) strictly peripheral route arguments.
C) neither but only logical arguments.
D) both central and peripheral.

Question 26

Elizabeth, a high-school student who smokes cigarettes, saw a film in her health class that depicted horrible scenes of people dying from lung cancer. After class, a friend asked her whether the film had convinced her to quit smoking. Elizabeth said no. However, a few days later, she realized she did want to quit and decided to sign up for a program to help her stop smoking. Based on research on persuasion, what might you conclude?

A) High-fear messages are based on the primacy effect.
B) Elizabeth was distracted while watching the film.
C) Elizabeth has low self-esteem.
D) Elizabeth was experiencing the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Question 27

In the case of people with low self-esteem, communications that arouse a great deal of fear tend to:

A) be ineffective under all circumstances.
B) be effective when accompanied by instructions regarding appropriate action.
C) inhibit immediate action, but are effective after a delay.
D) persuade the person to take immediate action.

Question 28

Walster and Festinger conducted an experiment in which subjects "overheard" a conversation between two graduate students, one of whom expressed an opinion on a certain issue. Subjects' opinions were influenced by the graduate student's opinion when:

A) the graduate student had previously performed a favor for the subject.
B) the subject believed the graduate students were unaware of his or her presence.
C) the graduate student was an expert on the particular issue in question.
D) the graduate student presented a two-sided argument regarding the issue in question.

Question 29

Attractive or likable communicators tend to be more persuasive when they are obviously trying to persuade us. This statement is:

A) true, but only when the communicator is delivering a message that the audience already agrees with.
B) false, except when the communicator is an expert source of information regarding the issue.
C) true, but only when the audience is composed of men.
D) true, but only in the case of trivial issues.

Question 30

In general, the work of George Hartmann indicates that people who received a primarily emotional message were:

A) more likely to vote in favor of the candidate than those who received a primarily logical message.
B) less likely to vote in favor of the candidate than those who received a primarily logical message.
C) primarily more influenced by the attractiveness of the candidates.
D) primarily more influenced by order of the candidates in which they appeared in a televised debate.

Question 31

According to research presented in the text, people with high self-esteem are most likely to be persuaded by campaigns using:

A) low fear.
B) moderate fear.
C) high fear.
D) all of these fears are equally effective.

Question 32

The more frightened a person is by the communication, the more likely he or she is to take immediate preventive action. This statement:

A) is true for most people.
B) describes the way a person with high self-esteem might react to the message.
C) describes the way a person with low self-esteem might react to the message.
D) is false for most people.

Question 33

The fact that many advertising campaigns that use well-known sports figures are very effective suggests that:

A) we are more influenced through the peripheral route than we believe.
B) we are more influenced through central route than we believe.
C) we are more or less influenced through the central route if a message is presented quickly.
D) the person provides an inadequate justification for liking the product.

Question 34

Suppose you watch a TV ad for a deodorant that tells you almost nothing about the product, but presents it being used by beautiful, popular, successful people. The persuasion appeal is:

A) the primacy effect.
B) the inoculation effect.
C) the central route.
D) the peripheral route.

Question 35

Matthew McGlone presented college students with unfamiliar aphorisms that rhyme (woes unite foes) and the same ideas presented in a nonrhyming fashion (woes unite enemies). He found that the students were:

A) less persuaded by aphorisms that rhymed.
B) more persuaded by aphorisms that rhymed.
C) equally persuaded by both even though the rhyming ones were better remembered.
D) equally persuaded by both even though the nonrhyming ones were better remembered.

Question 36

Students were presented with a description of a dispute between business interests and environmentalists (Eagly, et al.) over a company polluting a river. When they read a statement given by someone with a business background in support of the environmentalists, the students thought the speaker was more sincere:

A) but were not persuaded by his argument.
B) and were persuaded by his argument.
C) but did not find him more trustworthy.
D) but were more influenced by peripheral characteristics.

Question 37

Matthew McGlone found that college students are more persuaded by unfamiliar aphorisms that rhyme (woes unite foes) than the same ideas presented in a nonrhyming fashion (woes unite enemies). This research suggests that _________ can be very subtle and very effective.

A) the inoculation effect
B) the central route
C) the peripheral route
D) the foot-in-the-door technique

Question 38

In a study by Hovland and Weiss, subjects heard arguments regarding the feasibility of atomic submarines. Subjects were more persuaded by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, rather than the Soviet newspaper Pravda, because:

A) Oppenheimer was an attractive source and, thus, subjects wished to identify with him.
B) Oppenheimer was perceived as an expert and trustworthy source of information, unlike Pravda.
C) Oppenheimer's arguments contained vivid examples, whereas Pravda presented the information in the form of statistics.
D) subjects knew that Pravda was arguing against its own self-interest and, thus, could not be trusted.

Question 39

A study by Aronson and Golden revealed that sixth-graders were more persuaded of the importance of arithmetic after listening to the pro-math arguments of a prizewinning engineer, as compared to a dishwasher. However, when the engineer giving the speech was a black man:

A) all students found his arguments less persuasive than those of the white engineer.
B) all students found his arguments more persuasive than those of the white engineer.
C) most students devalued engineering as a profession.
D) only students who were highly prejudiced against blacks found his arguments less persuasive than those of the white engineer.

Question 40

Suppose you are going to organize a program for high school students advocating stricter enforcement of the drug laws. All other things being equal, your most persuasive speaker would be a:

A) police officer.
B) concerned and well-liked parent.
C) person serving a jail sentence for drug possession.
D) student who has always supported this view.

Question 41

There appears to be a positive linear relationship between one's attitude change and the credibility of the source of the communication as long as:

A) the person has high self-esteem.
B) the message is within one's latitude of acceptance.
C) a primacy effect is operating.
D) the argument presents both sides of the issues.

Question 42

In thinking about the relative importance of the primacy and recency effects, the most crucial variable is:

A) expertise.
B) time.
C) trustworthiness.
D) vividness.

Question 43

Generally, high-fear appeals are more effective than low-fear appeals in producing behavior change when:

A) specific instructions are provided on how to avoid painful consequences.
B) the issue is unimportant to the audience.
C) the issue is moderately important to the audience.
D) the audience is challenged to come up with their own plan for avoiding painful consequences.

Question 44

Fear appeals seem to function best when:

A) followed by specific instructions for appropriate actions.
B) the fear is extremely high.
C) the fear cannot be reduced.
D) recommendations offered produce an increase in arousal.

Question 45

You are in the market for a new car and think you would like to own a Saab. According to research reported by Richard Nisbett and his associates, which of the following would be most likely to influence your decision?

A) television commercials for Saab that are both informative and emotionally appealing
B) print ads for Saab that are primarily informative
C) hearing about the huge repair bills a neighbor's sister had on her Saab
D) a high ranking made by Consumer Reports based on a sample of 75,000 miles of testing

Question 46

Energy auditors were more successful in persuading homeowners to make improvements that would increase the energy-efficiency of their homes when:

A) the auditors were expert and trustworthy.
B) the auditors showed homeowners' reports of how much money they would save if they made the improvements.
C) the auditors used highly vivid language and examples when making their recommendations to homeowners.
D) the auditors used a two-sided argument when making their recommendations.

Question 47

According to theorist Daniel Gilbert, we ignore threats such as global warming because:

A) we would have to acknowledge that we are endangering ourselves.
B) we would have to change the behavior of others outside our own culture.
C) they are a future danger that does not directly target us.
D) specific actions have not been tied to the fear message.

Question 48

Suppose you are trying to persuade an educated audience that they should vote for you. Both you and your opponent will speak at a meeting the same day and the election will be held in two weeks. You should choose to speak ________ and give a ________ presentation.

A) first; one-sided
B) second; one-sided
C) first; two-sided
D) second; two-sided

Question 49

In a study by Leventhal, some students were exposed to a high-fear message regarding the importance of taking tetanus shots. Later, half of them were given specific instructions about where and when the shots were available, while the other half was not. Compared to the group that received instructions, students who did not receive them:

A) displayed less favorable attitudes toward taking the shots.
B) displayed equally favorable attitudes toward the shots, but were less likely to actually take the shots.
C) displayed less favorable attitudes toward the shots, and were less likely to actually take the shots.
D) were equally likely to take the shots, but only after a 2-day delay.

Question 50

When is a two-sided message likely to be more effective than a one-sided message?

A) when the position advocated falls within the audience's latitude of acceptance
B) when the audience is poorly informed and in general agreement with the source
C) when the audience is well-informed and in general opposition to the position of the source
D) when the position advocated falls in the audience's latitude of rejection

Question 51

Researcher Matthew McGlone manipulated the message on pamphlets about the Swine flu (N1H1 flu) so that the flu was seen as an aggressive threat that kills people. On other pamphlets, the flu was described more passively as something thousands of people die from each year. People who read the more aggressive pamphlet ________ the people who read the passive pamphlet.

A) were more likely to get a flu shot than
B) were less likely to get a flu shot than
C) were just as likely to get a flu shot as
D) did not act because their fear was more overwhelming compared to

Question 52

According to Aronson's chapter on persuasion, emotional appeals tend to influence _______ and specific instructions tend to influence ________.

A) actual behavior; attitudes
B) attitudes; intentions
C) intentions; attitudes
D) attitudes; actual behavior

Question 53

According to Aronson, if you were to give one of two persuasive speeches, you would choose to speak second if the time interval between the first and second speech were _______ and the time interval between the second speech and the audience's action were _______.

A) long; short
B) short; long
C) long; long
D) short; short

Question 54

Suppose you were running for office and were going to debate your opponent. If both of you were to present your arguments one right after the other and the election is still several days away, you should probably try to speak ________, in order to make use of the ________ effect.

A) second; recency
B) first; primacy
C) second; primacy
D) first; recency

Question 55

In the aftermath of the September 11 attack, the U.S. government issued several warnings of imminent terrorist attacks. Which statement is true of those warnings?

A) The warnings gave specific details about the time of the anticipated attack.
B) The warnings gave clear instructions for how-to avoid being a victim.
C) The warnings did not meet any criteria needed to be effective.
D) The warnings specified the exact place where an attack would occur.

Question 56

According to the text, perhaps the best way to encourage young people to use condoms when having intercourse is to:

A) print a warning about AIDS on each condom label.
B) encourage people to think of condoms as part of erotic foreplay.
C) present the startling statistics about how high the risk of AIDS is for young American heterosexuals.
D) show explicit film footage of people dying from AIDS.

Question 57

Which of the following conditions tends to make a one-sided argument more effective in persuading an audience than a two-sided argument?

A) an intelligent and sophisticated audience
B) a relatively unintelligent and uninformed audience
C) a very rational and unemotional audience
D) an audience which is initially opposed to the speaker's argument

Question 58

Under certain conditions, a two-sided argument may be more persuasive than a one-sided argument because:

A) a well-informed audience is aware of both sides of the issue and, thus, would tend to perceive a one-sided argument as unfair or biased.
B) all audiences appreciate hearing both sides of a controversial issue.
C) an uninformed audience needs to hear both sides of the issue before forming an opinion.
D) a one-sided argument would probably be confusing to an uninformed audience.

Question 59

A one-sided argument for why nuclear power should be discontinued would be more persuasive than a two-sided argument with which of the following groups?

A) a local anti-nuke group
B) a college physics class
C) the CEO of a company that makes parts used in nuclear power plants
D) the U.S. Department of Energy staff

Question 60

If you wanted to be sure that you had the opportunity to present your point of view first and hope that listeners would not pay attention to the speakers who followed you, you would be trying to use to your advantage the influence of the:

A) recency effect.
B) inoculation effect.
C) rank order effect.
D) primacy effect.

Question 61

"The mass media exerts a powerful and pervasive impact on our attitudes and behavior-even if direct attempts at persuasion are not involved." Explain the meaning of this statement, and describe two pieces of research that support it.

Question 62

Hovland, Harvey, and Sherif conducted an experiment on latitude of acceptance of ideas about the state being "wet" or "dry" on the sale of alcohol beverages. They found that:

A) the greatest change happened when a moderate discrepancy took place between the actual message and the individual's original opinion.
B) the greatest change happened when an extreme discrepancy took place between the actual message and the individual's original opinion.
C) it was very difficult to change the elders of the community because they wanted the state "dry."
D) the greatest change happened for only people who moved from their "dry" position to a "wet "position because they could see the economic benefits.

Question 63

"Persuasive communications, if blatant or coercive, can be perceived as intruding upon one's freedom of choice, thereby activating a person's defenses to resist the messages." This statement reflects the central idea of which of the following theories or concepts?

A) reinforcement theory
B) the inoculation effect
C) reactance theory
D) the primacy effect

Question 64

Pretend you are a candidate for public office and you are planning to engage in a debate with your opponent. Given the choice, under what circumstances would you wish to speak first? Under what circumstances would you choose to speak last? Explain the reasoning behind your choices.

Question 65

Give an example of an advertisement using a central route strategy and one using a peripheral route strategy. What is the major feature that distinguishes between these two approaches?

Question 66

When a person is exposed to a watered-down attack upon his or her beliefs, this produces resistance to later persuasion because:

A) the person becomes bored with the topic.
B) the person gains some practice in defending his or her beliefs.
C) the person feels that he or she is not conforming to another's wishes.
D) None of these is true, since prior exposure decreases resistance to later persuasion.

Question 67

According to Aronson, under which of the following conditions of persuasive communication would people's attitudes typically change the least?

A) when an expert argues an extreme position
B) when a nonexpert argues an extreme position
C) when an expert argues a moderate position
D) when a nonexpert argues a moderate position

Question 68

Martha's mother tells her that she is absolutely never to dye her hair a "funny color." Martha proceeds to dye her hair purple. Martha's behavior is best thought of as an example of:

A) the primacy effect.
B) the recency effect.
C) the inoculation effect.
D) reactance.

Question 69

Assume a speaker has low credibility with the audience. For maximum attitude change, how discrepant from the audience's initial position should the communication be?

A) not at all discrepant
B) moderately discrepant
C) highly discrepant
D) Discrepancy is not a significant factor if the speaker has low credibility.

Question 70

Compared to logical or rational appeals, how effective are persuasive communications that arouse a high level of fear? Under what conditions are fear-arousing messages most effective in influencing behavior? Under what conditions might they be less effective? Be sure to support your answer with examples of relevant research.

Question 71

One way of decreasing the persuasibility of members of an audience is:

A) to feed them desirable food while someone is trying to persuade them.
B) to forewarn them that someone is going to try to persuade them.
C) to remind them that even though the speaker might be credible, he or she may not be trustworthy.
D) to hide from them the fact that someone is going to try to persuade them.

Question 72

According to several studies of television crime dramas:

A) television accurately portrays criminals as committing crimes because of psychopathology or insatiable greed, as happens in the real world.
B) television tends to ignore situational pressures which lead to criminal activity.
C) television police officers are portrayed as being about as effective as their real-world counterparts.
D) heavy viewers of such crime shows tend to be more lenient and to believe in the presumption of innocence for the defendant.

Question 73

What characteristics associated with the audience play a significant role in determining the impact of a persuasive communication? Why are they important? Support your reasoning by discussing the results of research involving audience characteristics.

Question 74

The main way in which an attitude differs from an opinion is that an attitude:

A) includes an emotional component.
B) is held for a briefer period of time.
C) pertains to people, not just facts.
D) is more resistant to change through persuasion.

Question 75

In your own words, define and discuss the difference between education and propaganda. Why is it often true that, in real life, these two phenomena are difficult to distinguish? Provide an example of how information designed to educate might also serve as a subtle form of propaganda.

Question 76

Suppose you belonged to an antinuclear group that wanted to persuade an audience that the development of nuclear power plants should be curtailed. The audience is composed of relatively uninformed adults who are already somewhat in favor of nuclear power. Based on your readings on persuasion, what kind of message would you want to deliver? Would you give the speech yourself or, if not, what kind of speaker would you want to hire? Provide examples of relevant research to support your arguments.

Question 77

According to research by Gerbner and his associates, heavy viewers of television are more likely than light viewers to:

A) hold exaggerated views about the prevalence of violence in society.
B) perceive women as having more interests than men.
C) hold less prejudiced attitudes toward women and racial minorities.
D) be more easily persuaded by attractive communicators.

Question 78

John Jost argues that his research covering 44 years worth of studies indicates that the reason conservatives and liberals are not persuaded by each other's arguments rests in individual differences between them. More specifically, conservatives ________ while liberals ____________.

A) are fair and balanced; are extreme
B) are more persuaded by fear messages; are more persuaded by fact-based arguments
C) are right most of the time; are not sure what is the correct answer most of the time
D) are more persuaded by one-sided arguments; are more persuaded by two-sided arguments

Question 79

McAlister's field experiment was successful in helping seventh-graders resist peer pressure to smoke cigarettes. His strategy involved teaching students:

A) how to be assertive and just say "no."
B) a series of counterarguments they could use against peer pressure, such as, "I'd be a real chicken if I smoked just to impress you."
C) how to educate their peers about the tremendous health risks involved in smoking.
D) how to maintain high self-esteem, so they would be more resistant to peer pressure.

Question 80

To change a person's attitude the most, a communicator should present a position that is highly distant or discrepant from the person's initial position.

A) The statement is true.
B) The statement is false.
C) The statement is true only for low-credibility communicators.
D) The statement is true only for high-credibility communicators.