Deck 42: Trait Theories, Social-Cognitive Theories, and the Self

Question 1

Which technique would psychologists use to assess whether a cluster of characteristics that includes ambition, determination, persistence, and self-reliance reflects a single personality trait?

A) projective testing
B) factor analysis
C) empirically derived testing
D) free association

Answer 1

factor analysis

Question 2

Which two dimensions of personality have the Eysencks emphasized?

A) extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability
B) internal-external locus of control and extraversion-introversion
C) internal-external locus of control and emotional stability-instability
D) melancholic-phlegmatic and choleric-sanguine

Answer 2

extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability

Question 3

We can better predict drivers' behavior at traffic lights from knowing the color of the lights than from knowing the drivers' personalities. This best illustrates the importance of

A) collectivism.
B) the spotlight effect.
C) self-transcendence.
D) situational influences.

Answer 3

situational influences.

Question 4

Around the world, people describe others' personality traits in terms that are consistent with a set of factors called

A) defense mechanisms.
B) psychosexual stages.
C) the hierarchy of needs.
D) the Big Five.

Question 5

One of the Big Five personality factors is

A) reciprocal determinism.
B) self-actualization.
C) agreeableness.
D) free association.

Question 6

In studying personality, a trait theorist would most likely

A) use a projective test.
B) observe a person in a variety of situations.
C) use a personality inventory.
D) use the method of free association.

Question 7

Although she is intelligent and a good athlete, Abigail believes that her low grades in school and losing the quarter-mile race are reflections of her own intellectual and athletic incompetence. Her conclusion best illustrates

A) the false consensus effect.
B) reciprocal determinism.
C) the spotlight effect.
D) a pessimistic attributional style.

Question 8

Sarah's optimism is both a contributor to and a product of her successful career accomplishments. This best illustrates

A) self-serving bias.
B) reciprocal determinism.
C) unconditional positive regard.
D) the spotlight effect.

Question 9

Regarding high self-esteem, psychologists who study the self have found that self-affirming thinking

A) is generally maladaptive to the individual because it distorts reality by overinflating self-esteem.
B) is generally adaptive to the individual because it reduces shyness, anxiety, and loneliness.
C) tends to prevent the individual from viewing others with compassion and understanding.
D) tends not to characterize people who have experienced unconditional positive regard.

Question 10

Marcy believes that the outcome of athletic contests depends so much on luck that it hardly pays to put any effort into her own athletic training. Her belief most clearly illustrates

A) the spotlight effect.
B) the Barnum effect.
C) the false consensus effect.
D) an external locus of control.

Question 11

Students perceive themselves as less likely than the average classmate to develop drinking problems or drop out of school. This best illustrates

A) the Barnum effect.
B) the spotlight effect.
C) the false consensus effect.
D) unrealistic optimism.

Question 12

During a phone call to the Psychic Network, Mark was told that "you often worry about things much more than you admit, even to your best friends." Mark's amazement at the psychic's apparent understanding of his personality best illustrates

A) the spotlight effect.
B) an external locus of control.
C) the Barnum effect.
D) the self-reference phenomenon.

Question 13

The stability of personality during adulthood best illustrates the value of

A) unconditional positive regard.
B) an internal locus of control.
C) factor analysis.
D) trait theories.

Question 14

Research on locus of control indicates that internals are ________ than externals.

A) more dependent
B) more intelligent
C) better able to cope with stress
D) more sociable

Question 15

The social-cognitive perspective highlights the interaction of personal traits with our environment, a process that Albert Bandura called

A) free association.
B) self-actualization.
C) reciprocal determinism.
D) reaction formation.

Question 16

After experiencing prolonged and seemingly inescapable physical abuse from her husband, Kayla became increasingly depressed and hopelessly resigned to her suffering. Her reaction best illustrates

A) the spotlight effect.
B) an Electra complex.
C) learned helplessness.
D) defensive self-esteem.

Question 17

With regard to personality, it appears that

A) there is little consistency of behavior from one situation to the next and little consistency of traits over the life span.
B) there is little consistency of behavior from one situation to the next but significant consistency of traits over the life span.
C) there is significant consistency of behavior from one situation to the next but little consistency of traits over the life span.
D) there is significant consistency of behavior from one situation to the next and significant consistency of traits over the life span.

Question 18

A major criticism of trait theory is that it

A) places too great an emphasis on early childhood experiences.
B) overestimates the consistency of behavior in different situations.
C) underestimates the importance of heredity in personality development.
D) places too great an emphasis on positive traits.

Question 19

When Vanessa noticed that she was wearing mismatched socks, she overestimated the extent to which others would also notice. Her reaction best illustrates

A) the spotlight effect.
B) defensive self-esteem.
C) reciprocal determinism.
D) the Barnum effect.

Question 20

Card players who attribute their wins to their own skill and their losses to bad luck best illustrate

A) unconditional positive regard.
B) reciprocal determinism.
C) the spotlight effect.
D) self-serving bias.

Question 21

Research on the Big Five personality factors provides evidence that

A) some tendencies decrease during adulthood, while others increase.
B) these traits only describe personality in Western, individualist cultures.
C) the heritability of individual differences in these traits generally runs about 25 percent or less.
D) all of these statements are true.

Question 22

Which of the following statements about self-esteem is NOT correct?

A) People with low self-esteem tend to be negative about others.
B) People with high self-esteem are less prone to drug addiction.
C) People with low self-esteem tend to be nonconformists.
D) People with high self-esteem suffer less from insomnia.

Question 23

Research has shown that individuals who are made to feel insecure are subsequently

A) more critical of others.
B) less critical of others.
C) more likely to display self-serving bias.
D) less likely to display self-serving bias.

Question 24

Freud is to psychoanalytic theory as Allport is to ________ theory.

A) behavioral
B) humanistic
C) trait
D) social-cognitive

Question 25

Which personality theory emphasizes the interaction between the individual and the environment in shaping personality?

A) psychoanalytic
B) trait
C) humanistic
D) social cognitive

Question 26

A characteristic pattern of behavior or tendency to act and feel in a certain way is called a

A) self-concept.
B) fixation.
C) projection.
D) trait.

Question 27

A consistent tendency to be shy is best described as a(n)

A) trait.
B) projection.
C) Oedipus complex.
D) false consensus effect.

Question 28

Trait theory attempts to

A) show how development of personality is a lifelong process.
B) describe and classify people in terms of their predispositions to behave in certain ways.
C) determine which traits are most conducive to individual self-actualization.
D) explain how behavior is shaped by the interaction among traits, behavior, and the environment.

Question 29

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a(n)

A) projective personality test.
B) empirically derived and objective personality test.
C) personality test developed mainly to assess job applicants.
D) personality test used primarily to assess locus of control.

Question 30

Some contemporary researchers are focusing their work on

A) basic dimensions of personality.
B) promoting positive aspects of life.
C) classic theories of behavior.
D) negative states.

Question 31

Which of the following is the major criticism of the social-cognitive perspective?

A) It focuses too much on early childhood experiences.
B) It focuses too little on the inner traits of a person.
C) It provides descriptions but not explanations.
D) It lacks appropriate assessment techniques.

Question 32

With which of the following statements would a social-cognitive psychologist agree?

A) People with an internal locus of control achieve more in school.
B) "Externals" are better able to cope with stress than "internals."
C) "Internals" are less independent than "externals."
D) A social-cognitive psychologist would agree with all of these statements.

Question 33

The ________ classifies people according to Carl Jung's personality types.

A) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
B) MMPI
C) Locus of Control Scale
D) Kagan Temperament Scale

Question 34

An example of self-serving bias described in the text is the tendency of people to

A) see themselves as average on nearly any desirable dimension.
B) accept more responsibility for successes than failures.
C) be overly critical of other people.
D) exhibit heightened racial prejudice.

Question 35

The Big Five personality factors are

A) emotional stability, openness, introversion, sociability, locus of control.
B) neuroticism, extraversion, openness, emotional stability, sensitivity.
C) neuroticism, gregariousness, extraversion, impulsiveness, conscientiousness.
D) emotional stability, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness.

Question 36

Seligman has found that humans and animals who are exposed to aversive events they cannot escape may develop

A) an internal locus of control.
B) a reaction formation.
C) learned helplessness.
D) neurotic anxiety.

Question 37

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator labels a person who is sympathetic, appreciative, and tactful as a(n) ________ type.

A) thinking
B) judging
C) feeling
D) intuitive

Question 38

In studying personality, a social-cognitive theorist would most likely make use of

A) personality inventories.
B) projective tests.
C) observing behavior in different situations.
D) factor analyses.

Question 39

Trait theorists are more concerned with ________ personality than with ________ it.

A) predicting; assessing
B) describing; explaining
C) changing; analyzing
D) interpreting; observing

Question 40

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator classifies people according to personality types identified by

A) Gordon Allport.
B) Carl Jung.
C) Albert Bandura.
D) Carl Rogers.

Question 41

Emotional instability is most closely related to the Big Five trait dimension of

A) openness.
B) neuroticism.
C) agreeableness.
D) conscientiousness.

Question 42

Personality inventories are designed to assess several ________ at once.

A) possible selves
B) defense mechanisms
C) attributional styles
D) traits

Question 43

Dr. Zytowics wants to assess the extent to which a client is suffering from depression, social withdrawal, and other symptoms of an emotional disorder. Which personality inventory would be most helpful for this purpose?

A) MMPI
B) Rorschach
C) Free Association Index
D) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Question 44

A person who is careless and disorganized most clearly ranks low on the Big Five trait dimension of

A) neuroticism.
B) extraversion.
C) openness.
D) conscientiousness.

Question 45

People who take personality inventories can lie in order to create a good impression. This best illustrates that the objectivity in scoring personality inventories does not guarantee that they

A) have validity.
B) are empirically derived.
C) assess several different traits.
D) have been subjected to factor analysis.

Question 46

People respond to stress with greater anxiety if they have

A) a weak superego.
B) an internal locus of control.
C) unconditional positive regard.
D) a reactive autonomic nervous system.

Question 47

Which of the following tests was empirically derived?

A) Free Association Index
B) Rorschach inkblot test
C) MMPI
D) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Question 48

The Eysencks believed that extraversion and emotionality are

A) psychosexual stages.
B) reciprocal determinants.
C) genetically influenced.
D) aspects of self-esteem.

Question 49

A frontal lobe area involved in ________ is ________ active in extraverts than in introverts.

A) restraining behavior; less
B) addictive cravings; more
C) empathy; less
D) aggression; more

Question 50

The MMPI is an example of a(n)

A) projective test.
B) personality inventory.
C) inkblot test.
D) self-esteem test.

Question 51

Being highly imaginative is most closely related to the Big Five trait dimension of

A) extraversion.
B) openness.
C) neuroticism.
D) conscientiousness.

Question 52

Factor analysis has been used to identify the most basic

A) self-serving biases.
B) defense mechanisms.
C) personality traits.
D) psychosexual stages.

Question 53

Coretta is quiet, pessimistic, anxious, and moody. In terms of the Eysencks' basic personality dimensions, she would be classified as

A) unstable-introverted.
B) manic-depressive.
C) external-dependent.
D) passive-aggressive.

Question 54

Assessing an individual's standing on the Big Five today has the advantage of providing a ________ personality description.

A) fixated
B) flattering
C) psychosexual
D) comprehensive

Question 55

The tendency to accept favorable descriptions of one's personality that could really be applied to almost anyone is known as

A) the Barnum effect.
B) projection.
C) the spotlight effect.
D) unconditional positive regard.

Question 56

Which of the following is a basic personality factor assessed by Eysenck Personality Questionnaire?

A) emotional stability.
B) self-transcendence.
C) individualism.
D) repression.

Question 57

By selective breeding, researchers can produce bold or shy birds. This best illustrates that some personality differences among birds are

A) fixations.
B) empirically derived.
C) genetically influenced.
D) defense mechanisms.

Question 58

The Big Five trait dimensions were identified by means of

A) the MMPI.
B) free association.
C) projective tests.
D) factor analysis.

Question 59

A personality inventory that utilizes only those items that have been shown to differentiate particular groups of people is a(n) ________ test.

A) factor analytic
B) self-report
C) projective
D) empirically derived

Question 60

Frida was informed by a professional palm reader: "You generally communicate openly with others, but you have certain dark secrets that even your closest friends could never guess." The fact that Frida was impressed by the palm reader's insight into her personality best illustrates

A) the false consensus effect.
B) the Barnum effect.
C) the spotlight effect.
D) an external locus of control.

Question 61

Which theorists have been most directly criticized for underestimating the variability of behavior from situation to situation?

A) social-cognitive
B) psychoanalytic
C) humanistic
D) trait

Question 62

The stability of personality traits is best illustrated by the consistency of

A) the false consensus effect.
B) reciprocal determinism.
C) expressive styles.
D) unconditional positive regard.

Question 63

Social cues are especially likely to influence our behavior in ______ settings, and personality traits are especially likely to influence our behavior in ______ situations.

A) unfamiliar; informal
B) unfamiliar; formal
C) familiar; formal
D) familiar; informal

Question 64

Studies of college students' conscientiousness revealed only a modest relationship between a student being conscientious on one occasion and being similarly conscientious on another occasion. This should make psychologists more cautious about overestimating the impact of ________ on behavior.

A) repression
B) personality traits
C) reciprocal determinism
D) unconditional positive regard

Question 65

The humanistic perspective is to Maslow as the social-cognitive perspective is to

A) Allport.
B) Rogers.
C) Adler.
D) Bandura.

Question 66

Heritability generally runs about ________ percent or a tad bit more for each of the Big Five trait dimensions.

A) 25
B) 50
C) 75
D) 90

Question 67

Researchers have identified brain areas associated with various Big Five traits. A frontal lobe area that is sensitive to reward has been found to be larger among those who are high in

A) conscientiousness.
B) agreeableness.
C) openness.
D) extraversion.

Question 68

Sheryl is very outgoing and fun-loving. She prefers to be around other people most of the time. She most clearly ranks high on the Big Five trait dimension known as

A) openness.
B) collectivism.
C) extraversion.
D) conscientiousness.

Question 69

The person-situation controversy involves a debate regarding the influence of ________ and ________ on behavior.

A) self-concept; self-esteem
B) optimism; pessimism
C) environments; traits
D) the real self; the ideal self

Question 70

The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interactive influences of our traits and our

A) temperaments.
B) situations.
C) fixations.
D) self-concepts.

Question 71

According to Bandura, reciprocal determinism involves multidirectional influences among

A) thoughts, emotions, and actions.
B) behaviors, internal personal factors, and environmental events.
C) id, ego, and superego.
D) self-concept, self-actualization, and self-transcendence.

Question 72

People are especially likely to demonstrate an increase in ________ during their twenties.

A) conscientiousness
B) extraversion
C) openness
D) emotional instability

Question 73

Which perspective most clearly emphasizes that our personalities help create the situations to which we react?

A) the psychoanalytic perspective
B) the social-cognitive perspective
C) the humanistic perspective
D) the trait perspective

Question 74

The use of positive emotion words in text messaging is best predicted by the Big Five trait of

A) openness.
B) extraversion.
C) agreeableness.
D) conscientiousness.

Question 75

Sheen is usually animated and talkative when he is with his girlfriend, but he is often quiet and reserved at home. He actively participates in many class discussions but frequently seems reluctant to talk with friends at the campus coffee shop. Sheen's behavior should make us more cautious about overemphasizing the impact of ________ on behavior.

A) personality traits
B) self-actualization
C) reciprocal determinism
D) defense mechanisms

Question 76

Arguments as to whether people's behavior is more strongly influenced by temporary external influences or by enduring inner influences best characterize the

A) psychoanalytic perspective.
B) person-situation controversy.
C) self-serving bias.
D) biopsychosocial approach.

Question 77

People's scores on a test of agreeableness are ________ predictors of how agreeable they will act in one particular situation. Their scores are ________ predictors of how agreeable they will act on average over many different situations.

A) poor; poor
B) good; good
C) poor; good
D) good; poor

Question 78

People's scores on a test of extraversion are likely to be most strongly correlated with the number of social conversations they initiate during the course of a single

A) hour.
B) day.
C) week.
D) month.

Question 79

People who score high on the Big Five trait dimension known as ________ are also more likely to earn better high school and university grades.

A) extraversion
B) neuroticism
C) agreeableness
D) conscientiousness

Question 80

Unlike country, pop, and religious music lovers, those who prefer classical, jazz, blues, and folk music tend to score high on the Big Five trait dimension known as

A) extraversion.
B) openness.
C) neuroticism.
D) conscientiousness.